
Class 
Book. 















GopightN? 






COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



The Pupil and How to 
Teacn Him 



By ELDON GRANT BURRITT, A. M., 

President of Greenville College 



Introduction by Jonn LaDue, A. M. 



W. B. ROSE, Publisher 

1 1 32 Washington Boul., Chicago 

1910 



Copyright 1910 
by 

>E. G. BUBBITT 



©CLA256S34 



PREFACE 

Among the great forces that make for in- 
dividual and social righteousness the Sunday- 
school holds a strategic position. An or- 
ganization which in our own country alone 
secures the systematic study of the Word of 
God by thirteen million pupils is the radi- 
ating center of forces that are stupendous 
in their power of accomplishment. To real- 
ize its full possibilities, the Sunday-school 
must develop within its ranks the most 
efficient leadership. 

The importance of an efficient Sunday- 
school ministry appears in the light of a 
clear conception of the dignity of the Sun- 
day-school teacher. The teacher who works 
with God in fitting men and women for His 
kingdom is engaged in the most momentous 
undertaking that can enlist the energies of 
man. The importance of capable instruction 
is recognized also from a consideration of the 
standards of efficiency which obtain in sec- 
ular education. 

The movement in favor of better prepara- 



IV PREFACE 

tion for teaching is the key to true Sunday- 
school success. The most important factor 
of the Sunday-school is the teacher. He must 
be a real "fisher of men." His qualifications 
will include a knowledge of fish, and the di- 
vine art of baiting a hook and casting a line. 

This little book aims to be of service to 
those who desire to qualify themselves for 
teaching. Its purpose is to make available 
for the teacher the primary facts of mental 
and spiritual growth, and the fundamental 
principles which underlie the impartation of 
instruction. It makes no claim to original- 
ity, but has appropriated from various 
sources material to which no one has the ex- 
clusive right. The effort has been to present 
the facts and to draw conclusions in untech- 
nical language and in popular style. The book 
has been endorsed by the Educational Com- 
mittee of the International Sunday-school 
Association as a suitable text-book for the 
First Standard Teacher Training Course cov- 
ering the subjects, The Child and The 
Teacher. Some classes may be able to do 
supplementary reading from books men- 
tioned after the last chapter. 

If this book has a useful ministry in help- 



PREFACE V 

ing to prepare men and women to be co-la- 
borers with God in the service of the Sun- 
day-school, it will afford the deepest satisfac- 
tion to the author. 

Eldon Grant Burritt. 
Greenville, Illinois, January, 1910. 



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CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Religious' Education ----- 11 

II. The Study of the Child - - - 20 

III. Stages of Development — Beginners - 30 

IV. The Primary Age 49 

V. The Junior Age 60 

VI. The Intermediate Age 71 

VII. The Senior Age 83 

VIII. The Older Adults 94 

IX. The Mind and its Activities - - 100 

X. Attention 112 

XI. Memory 126 

XII. Imagination - - - 139 

XIII. Thought - 150 

XIV. The Feelings 166 

XV. The Moral and Religious Sentiments 177 

XVI. Will, Habit and Charactee - - 192 

XVII. The Pbeparation of the Teacher - 210 

XVIII. Principles of Teaching - - - 216 

XIX. Methods of Instruction ... 222 

XX. Teaching Suggestions - 238 

7 



INTRODUCTION 

Successful Sunday-school teaching requires 
not only a knowledge of the Bible, but also 
a knowledge of those to whom the Bible is 
taught. The same methods of presentation 
will not do for the primary class, the boys 
and girls in their early teens and the adult 
class. No one probably will deny this, and 
it may seem a needless statement of a self- 
svident commonplace. But the characteris- 
tic differences and needs of different ages are 
founded largely on different physical and 
mental conditions. The study of these condi- 
tions has doubtless been of much help in ar- 
ranging the courses of study and the meth- 
ods of teaching in the secular schools. Some 
quite clearly defined facts seem to have been 
discovered and to have been confirmed by ex- 
tensive observation and practise. These 
facts, in large measure, are as important for 
the Sunday-school as for the day school, and 
it must necessarily increase a teacher's effi- 
ciency to become acquainted with them and 
put them in operation. 



X INTRODUCTION 

Men are studying with increasing intensity 
the principles of business and laws of trade, 
the life history of corn, of chinch bugs, of 
cotton boll weevils, of bees, of horses, cattle 
and hogs. Is it not worth while to study the 
nature, growth, and needs of children and 
young people? 

For that purpose this book has been writ- 
ten; and the author is peculiarly well qual- 
ified for the task. From childhood he was 
brought up in the Sunday-school. For years 
he has been a Sunday-school superintendent 
and an instructor of children and young peo- 
ple. Since serving as president of Greenville 
College he has paid special attention to the 
teaching of subjects in the field of mental 
science. He thus knows the problem well, 
both from the theoretical and also the prac- 
tical standpoint, and he has handled it not 
only ably, but also devoutly, with a refresh- 
ing absence of the evolutionistic materialism 
that appears in so much of the present liter- 
ature on this subject. May the blessing of 
Christ richly attend this endeavor to increase 
the efficiency of the great work of the Sunday- 
school. John LaDue. 

Greenville College. 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 

To understand the place and function of 
the Sunday-school, we must know something 
of the nature and end of all education, and 
the place of the Sunday-school in our gen- 
eral educational system. 

True Education Religious 

"What is a Christian teacher, charged with 
the education of the young?" asked the cel- 
ebrated Rollin, two hundred years ago. "He 
is a man in whose hands Jesus Christ has 
placed a certain number of children whom 
He has redeemed by His blood, in whom He 
lives as His temple, whom He regards as His 
members, as His brethren, as His co-heirs; 
of whom He wishes to make kings and priests 
who will reign and serve God with Him and 
by Him through all eternity. And for what 
purpose has He confided children to them? 

11 



12 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Is it just to make poets, orators, philoso- 
phers and scholars of them? Who would 
dare say or even think that? It is for the 
purpose of making true Christians of them. 
This is the end of education, and all the rest 
holds the place of means." This spiritual 
or religious conception of the purpose of edu- 
cation, though frequently obscured by false 
and narrow views of life, has inspired the 
greatest teachers of the past, and claims the 
acceptance of an ever increasing number in 
the present. 

Ultimate End of Education 

True education aims at moral excellence 
and social efficiency. It is the process by 
which moral character is developed and the 
individual fitted for the service of life. It 
is an "adjustment to the spiritual posses- 
sions of the race." Among these possessions 
is religion. Education involves, therefore, an 
acquaintance with God, the appropriate con- 
duct due to our relation to Him, and the in- 
stitutions of the church in which our relig- 
ious ideas find outward form and expression. 

Any consideration of the real purpose of 
education reveals the exalted place of the 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 13 

Sunday-school and the dignity of the Sunday- 
school teacher. The position of the Sunday- 
school as an educational institution is cen- 
tral. The place of the Sunday-school teacher 
is full of honor, his opportunities great, his 
reward beyond compare. "They that be 
teachers (margin) shall shine as the bright- 
ness of the firmament; and they that turn 
many to righteousness as the stars for ever 
and ever" (Dan. 12:3). 

Agencies of Education 

The most important agencies contributing 
to the formal education of child life are 
three : 

1. The home. "The family," says Lau- 
rie, "is the chief agency in the education of 
the young, and, as such, it ought never to be 
superseded." Its influences are exercised 
early and continuously, and are prompted by 
feelings of love and responsibility. Conscious 
instruction is given in speech and deport- 
ment, and emphasis is placed upon the ideals 
of morality and religion. The home is re- 
sponsible for the child's fundamental atti- 
tudes toward nature, society, religion and 
God. 



14 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

2. The public school. This is the great 
agency of formal instruction and discipline. 
It operates through the plastic period of child 
life. It is of great importance, since it can 
modify the environment of the child, and in- 
troduce him to the greatest amount of ex- 
perience in a given time, for the purpose of 
achieving a definite and conscious end. This 
end is more or less clearly conceived of as 
ethical and social, but with too many it is 
narrow and selfish. The great problem is to 
unite in a popular system a scheme which 
will combine a practical preparation for the 
vocations of life with a development of moral 
character and the cultivation of the religious 
spirit. 

3. The Sunday-school. With the deepen- 
ing conviction that education should include 
morals and religion, the Sunday-school as- 
sumes a new and larger importance. Many 
homes are morally incapable of supplying 
this element and others seem to be indiffer- 
ent. We are informed on high authority that 
it cannot be supplied in our present system 
of public education. The Bible is given prac- 
tically no place in the instruction of our pub- 
lic schools. It devolves upon the Sunday- 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 15 

school, therefore, to complete our educa- 
tional system. The education of the Sunday- 
school is confessedly religious. It seeks to 
influence conduct and to implant and de- 
velop right character through an appeal to 
the religious motives and the development of 
the religious impulse, resulting in the trans- 
formation of heart and life through faith in 
Jesus Christ. There is no substitute for this 
instrumentality. To depreciate it or to neg- 
lect it is a crime against education as it is 
against morals and religion. 

Double Relation of the Sunday-school 

Completing as it does our educational sys- 
tem by emphasizing morals and religion, the 
-Sunday-school has a two-fold connection: 

1. Related to the church. Organized to 
teach religion, and morals which find a 
sound basis in the Christian religion, it is 
naturally affiliated with the church, whose 
specific object is the promotion of religion. 
The church should organize and control it, 
and the whole church should feel an inter- 
est in it and attend it. It is a service of the 
church, and its exercises are acts of wor- 
ship. Its true and ultimate aim should be 



16 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

to win souls to Christ, develop them in 
Christian character and train them in Christ- 
ian service. 

2. Belated to the school. The firm foun- 
dation upon which Christianity and Christ- 
ian character rest is a knowledge of the 
Bible. The second aim of the Sunday-school, 
therefore, is to impart this knowledge. This 
aim has important connections with the var- 
ious educational questions with which sec- 
ular education is concerned, such as courses 
of study, qualifications of teachers and meth- 
ods of teaching. The Sunday-school is an 
educational service, at which a knowledge of 
the Bible, its biographies, histories and doc- 
trines, are actually taught and learned. "To 
conceive of it in any way which will obscure 
its function as an educational institution 
will be fatal to any right conception of its 
work." Any principles or methods that have 
been found useful in secular schools ought 
to be understood and applied as far as 
possible by the Sunday-school teacher. A 
prime essential to any great or permanent 
success in Sunday-school work is scientific 
instruction. The teacher must be able to im- 
part such instruction. 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 17 

The Qualifications of a Teacher 

It is unanimously agreed that the impor- 
tant problems of the modern Sunday-school 
are teacher problems. President Little de- 
clares that "the educational problem of ev- 
ery century is to find the schoolmaster, not 
to find the school." Professor Hamill is 
quoted as saying that "the trained Sunday- 
school teacher alone is the key to the per- 
plexing problem of the modern Sunday- 
school." Professor Brumbaugh asserts truly 
that "the transcendent need of the Sunday- 
school is teachers." All the suggested acces- 
sories of a modern Sunday-school may be 
present, but they do not make a Sunday- 
school if the right sort of teacher is lacking. 
It is the teacher that makes the Sunday- 
school. The teacher of the right sort will 
know three things : 

1. The Bible. It is his text-book. It con- 
tains the subject-matter of instruction. He 
must know it — its history, geography, great 
characters, and its great moral truths. His 
teaching must be drawn from it, not from his 
own opinions or prejudices. It will be his 
text-book in every department, with every 
pupil. It is adapted to the primary and to the 



18 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

most advanced classes. Hence the teacher 
must know it comprehensively and analyti- 
cally. He will study it by books, paragraphs, 
sentences and words. To be a precise Bible 
student should be the great ambition of the 
teacher. 

2. Methods of teaching. A wise teacher 
will know the tested methods by which 
knowledge is communicated to pupils, how 
the feelings are stirred, and how the will 
is moved. These methods are based upon edu- 
cational principles which are universal and 
unchangeable. 

3. The child or pupil. A knowledge of 
human nature, the periods of human devel- 
opment, the characteristics of each period, 
and the appropriate instruction and train- 
ing for each period, is included in the equip- 
ment of the successful teacher. 

Realizing what is involved in the great 
work of education, and the essential connec- 
tion of the Sunday-school with this work, that 
the Sunday-school is as really educational 
as it is evangelistic, and that careful prep- 
aration is necessary in proportion to the in- 
terests involved, surely the Sunday-school 
teacher will work and pray for such an equip- 



&ELIGIOUS EDUCATION 19 

ment, in the knowledge of the Word and of 
those whom he serves, that his ministry may 
be in the highest sense fruitful in the forma- 
tion of Christian character and the cultiva- 
tion of lives of power. 



II. 

THE STUDY OF THE CHILD. 

Preparation for teaching was for a long 
time conceived to be a mere knowledge of the 
subject of instruction. It is now believed that 
a teacher can take higher vantage ground in 
the additional knowledge of the persons to 
be taught. We expect a physician to under- 
stand not only materia medica and chemis- 
try, but anatomy, physiology and hygiene, as 
well. He must know as much as possible 
about quinine and calomel, but an indiscrim- 
inate dispenser of quinine would likely do 
more harm than good. A physician must be 
concerned with diagnosis and intelligent pre- 
scription. 

So a teacher must know his pupils, 
as well as the subject he is to teach. 
Otherwise he is likely to prescribe a geneal- 
ogy or an imprecatory psalm where the de- 
mand requires the beatitudes or the ten com* 



THE STUDY OF THE CHILD 21 

niandments. If it is desirable for a farmer 
to understand scientifically his growing 
crops; for a fruit-grower to have a sympa- 
thetic and intelligent knowledge of trees; for 
a stockman to comprehend the nature of his 
horses, cattle and sheep; surely the Sunday- 
school teacher will draw from every source 
that accurate and classified knowledge of 
child nature that will enable him to minis- 
ter to the needs of his pupils, to enable them 
to develop character and bring forth fruit to 
the glory of God. The scientific study of ap- 
ple-nature and pig-nature has resulted in su- 
perior apples and pigs. It ts believed that 
the same study of human nature will con- 
tribute to a superior quality of manhood and 
womanhood. A careful study of the child 
will reveal : 

The Significance of Childhood 

Human life is marvelously complex. Its 
relations and duties are various and intri- 
cate. The range of its activities is wide. For 
this complicated life of manhood and woman- 
hood, an elaborate preparation is required. 
To make this preparation the childhood of a 
man is characterized by two features : 



22 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

1. A lengthened infancy. This is full of 
importance for the development of the indi- 
vidual and the race. In this respect man is 
different from the lower animals. They are 
practically mature at birth, or reach matur- 
ity a few months later. But the human in- 
fant is the most helpless of all infants, and 
after passing through a lengthened period of 
dependence, he gradually comes to mature 
manhood after many years. Animals find 
their preparations for life largely ready 
made, laid down in an inherited struc- 
ture. But man finds his preparation in the 
opportunities of a lengthened childhood. To 
further assist the child in making the fullest 
possible preparation for life he has: 

2. Extraordinary plasticity. As com- 
pared with the lower animals he is far more 
responsive to external conditions. He is 
more impressionable to environment and pre- 
serves this sensitivity for a period of time 
corresponding to the excessive demands of 
later life. In this plastic structure of the 
child are stored up organized experiences 
which constitute centers of interest in after 
years. The wise parent will take advantage 
of every opportunity to introduce the child 



THE STUDY OF THE CHILD 23 

to a wide range of valuable experience dur- 
ing the impressionable period. The Sunday- 
school teacher will think of childhood as sa- 
cred and his relation to it attended with the 
greatest responsibility. The Rev. Pascal Har- 
rower has said that "no ideas can become the 
permanent possession of the world which do 
not first enter through the door of childhood. 
The woof and web of Christian character and 
faith are wrought out during the school 
period of life." When this period is passed 
it cannot be recalled, and although compar- 
atively long, it is not too long to make ade- 
quate preparation for the demands of after 
life. 

The Ttfo Factors of "Development 

Effective in the making of an individual 
are two essential factors. One of these is 
what he is at the beginning — the powers and 
forces contributed by heredity. These var- 
ious powers at first exist only as latent pos- 
sibilities. The other factor is the external 
environment which stimulates into actuality 
and growth these sleeping forces. It is now 
quite generally agreed that this factor plays 
a much more important part in human life 



24 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

than the factor of heredity. The plasticity 
of the child renders him susceptible to re- 
markable modification in the process of his 
development. The doing of a thing or the 
thinking of a thought makes him a different 
being. The parent and teacher may choose 
what the child shall do or think, and so to 
a large extent determine what he shall be- 
come. In this fact lies the great opportunity 
and responsibility of a teacher. The Sun- 
day-school teacher especially will seek to fur- 
nish his pupils with such an environment of 
divine truth and Christian example as will 
call forth in symmetrical development the 
latent possibilities of soul and life. 

The Basis of Child Study 

In recent years the subject of the child 
has assumed great importance and yielded re- 
sults of much value to teachers. Child study 
is found to rest upon the following facts : 

1. Children are different from adults. 
They are not merely men of smaller stat- 
ure. They have characteristics, physical and 
mental, peculiar to themselves. Children 
differ from adults in powers of endurance 
and in the physiological processes of circula- 



THE STUDY OF THE CHILD 25 

tion and respiration. Children are frequent- 
ly overtaxed. Physical exhaustion is fre- 
quently mistaken for stupidity, a perfectly 
normal restlessness for total depravity. This 
superabundant activity, inquisitiveness and 
mischievousness will be very exasperating to 
those who look upon children as little men 
and little women ; but the teacher who under- 
stands will not be "easily provoked." 

Children have their own peculiar ways of 
thinking and feeling. They are concerned 
with the immediate and the near. They are 
not easily moved to present self-denial to se- 
cure some future blessing. They are con- 
cerned with the concrete, not with the ab- 
stract. Justice, mercy and truth as qualities 
are quite beyond them, but they do under 
stand and appreciate these qualities clothed 
in living personality. Adults restrain and 
control their feelings, but children live in a 
succession of highly emotional states. They 
feel intensely. Tears and laughter alternate 
in rapid sequence. Yet such feelings as love, 
sympathy, mercy, sacrifice, and sorrow, are 
rudimentary. The higher intellectual, social, 
moral and religious feelings are undeveloped, 
and appeals to these feelings will result fre- 



26 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

quently in disappointment to those inter- 
ested in their training. 

2. Children pass through certain well de- 
fined stages in their lives. Kirkpatrick says 
that "child study is concerned with all the 
changes that take place in human beings be- 
fore they reach maturity." The various in- 
stincts culminate at different times. Per- 
ception, imagination, memory, judgment, and 
reason successively mature. 

3. Children have individual peculiarities. 
No two possess the same attitudes and ten- 
dencies. Each has characteristics peculiar 
to himself. In weight, size, temperament, 
capability, and opportunity, each is different 
from the other. The recognition of indi- 
vidual differences lies at the basis of scien- 
tific education. 

Child study, therefore, has a sound basis in 
facts. It investigates the factors in human 
development, studies the natural order of 
growth, determines the modifying effect of 
various conditions and activities at different 
stages, and seeks to establish educational 
values and the best educational methods. Its 
end then is training in character on Chris- 
tian principles for life's duties. 



THE STUDY OF THE CHILD 27 

Methods ot Child Study 

There are three ways by which we come to 
a knowledge of child life. 

1. Books and papers. A growing literature 
is available for prospective teachers and oth- 
ers interested in child life. Excellent books 
are issued on the study of the mind and the 
principles and methods of teaching, popular 
in style and sound and thorough in treat- 
ment. 

2. Direct observation. We may study the 
child himself as he grows into youth and 
manhood. We may observe the development 
of his senses, the unfolding of his powers, 
the awakening of his moral sense, his ambi- 
tions, occupations, and language, his ideas 
and his pleasures. We may study not only 
one but many children, comparing those of 
different conditions and environments. 

3. Self study. We may recall our own 
unfolding experience, our points of view in 
childhood, our attitude toward various con- 
ditions, our hopes and fears, our childish 
aversions and aspirations. Happy for us and 
our pupils if we can go back over the path- 
way of our life and look out again upon life 
through the eyes of childhood, and see and 



28 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

feel and love and trust again as we did in 
those early years. Only so can we fully un- 
derstand children. Though we may have at- 
tained to the full stature of maturity, yet 
for the children's sake we must become chil- 
dren, that they, through our childlikeness, 
may come to manhood. 

Urgency of Child Study 

At least two strong considerations prompt 
earnest and thoughtful teachers to know 
and understand their pupils: 

1. Great interests are at stake. The en- 
trance to the pupils' hearts involves not mere- 
ly worldly success and temporal prosperity, 
but spiritual life and eternal destiny. Who 
can know the value of a soul? The develop- 
ment of soul must proceed according to nat- 
ural laws. These natural laws are God's 
ways of working. To understand God's plan 
of human development is to qualify us to be 
co-laborers with Him. Failure here must in- 
evitably end in spiritual deformation, dis- 
ease and death. 

2. The time is short. The teacher's op- 
portunity is a brief half-hour a week, or, 
counting the average period of attendance 



THE STUDY OP THE CHILD 29 

for a Sunday-school scholar to be fifteen 
years, thirty days for a life-time. A minute 
unused or misused is criminal prodigality. 



III. 

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT— BE- 
GINNERS— 3 TO 5. 

The charm of childhood lies in the possi- 
bility of development. No matter how per- 
fect the little one may be, we do not wish it 
to remain a child. Its beauty is the beauty 
of the early dawn, advancing to the fulness 
of the morning and the golden glory of noon. 
It is the beauty of prophecy, silently day by 
day unfolding its sacred mysteries, till the 
beneficient Father looks upon it and says it 
is very good. 

The Unfolding Life 

Many figures have been used to suggest the 
possibility hidden in the life of a little 
child. Any figure must fall far short in some 
phases, for God has given to no other earthly 
creation a life so rich, so beautiful, as the 
life which is our own. Yet the often used 



BEGINNERS 31 

figure of the opening flower is an excellent 
one, and in many ways suggests the unfold- 
ing life of the infant. Closely wrapped in 
the tiny seed are all the possibilities of fo- 
liage, flower, fragrance, and fruit. The dark 
bulb conceals the promise of the lily ; but the 
seed is not the plant nor the bulb the beauti- 
ful blossom. In many respects they are dif- 
ferent and need different culture and envi- 
ronment. Closely hidden within the mind 
and heart of the smiling infant or the 
rollicking boy, dwells, all secure, that em 
bryonic life, which is destined for an eter 
nal unfolding. He is not the developed man 
the great organizer, the unselfish statesman 
the profound scholar, the unquestioned saint 
but he may become such. 

Two Tendencies 

Left to itself, we are told, the infant rose- 
tree of most magnificent strain, which should 
yield its annual wealth of American Beau- 
ties, will develop into a ragged shrub and pro- 
duce only a few unlovely blossoms. Thus it 
reveals its tendency toward the imperfect. 
By the wise culture of a strong hand and a 
devoted heart, the child may know a perfect 



32 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

development, or left to himself and yielding 
to the wrong tendencies of his heart, he will 
produce only the unlovely fruits of evil. 
Happy indeed would it be if no tendencies 
but those toward beauty and virtue dwelt 
within the little heart. Unhappily, the work 
of the ages past has not been perfectly done, 
and the child finds himself the possessor of 
a double inheritance of tendencies, one lead- 
ing him toward truth and God, and the other 
calling him into forbidden paths. The suc- 
cessful teacher will recognize the good ten- 
dencies, which need food and encouragement 
and culture, and will also be conscious of 
the evil, and patiently lead the little one to 
see Jesus the Redeemer, who alone can 
cleanse the heart. 

Stages of Development 

There are stages of development, the flo- 
rist tells us, in the life of his flowers. There 
are times when much moisture is required, 
and other seasons when protection from 
showers is necessary. Sunshine is important, 
but sometimes the shade is more conducive 
to the perfect growth. There are certain 
clearly defined periods in the life of the 



BEGINNERS 33 

child. These are not simply a difference in 
age and size, but are marked by definite phy- 
sical and mental changes, by difference in 
needs, in tastes and possibilities. "There is 
a time to sow and a time to reap," and there 
is a time when certain definite work can be 
done in the mind and heart of a child, and 
there is no other time when it can be done 
so well. Every teacher should be acquainted 
with these periods and adapt her work to the 
present need of the unfolding life. As there 
is no fixed day upon which we can say that 
the little one passes from infancy to child- 
hood, so there is no particular time which in- 
variably marks the transition from one stage 
to another; but in the life of every -child 
these transitions occur, and each presents 
to the wise teacher special opportunities for 
effective service. As usually outlined for 
Sunday-school work, these periods are : 

The Cradle Roll, from 1 to 3. 

Beginners, 3 to 5. 

Primary, 6 to 8. 

Junior, 9 to 12. 

Intermediate, 13 to 15. 

Senior or young people, 16 to 25. 



34 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

The Cradle Roll 

The 'Cradle Eoll is for the babies. The 
work in this department will not be so much 
for the babies directly as for the parents of 
the babies. Much can be done for the child 
before it has reached the age of three years; 
but this is the special privilege of the mother 
and the home. A sincere interest in the chil- 
dren, however, manifested by calls, friendly 
inquiries and small attentions, will do much 
to interest the parents and may attract them 
to the Sunday-school or other church service. 

The Beginners 

The Beginners are the tiny tots who are 
just bidding good-by to the nursery and the 
cradle roll, with ages ranging from three to 
five. The Sunday-school is their first ven- 
ture into the great mysterious world. Upon 
the first impressions received here much will 
depend. Happy indeed is that teacher who 
shall lead the beginner to love the house of 
God. Who does not recall a vivid picture 
of some sun-bonneted little maiden, firmly 
holding the hand of an elder brother, timidly 
entering a little country Sunday-school? And 
that precious card. Oh! the delight of it. 



BEGINNERS 35 

Object and Media 

Dr. Haslett states the object of the Begin- 
ners' department of the Sunday-school to be, 
first, a kind, active and obedient child; and 
second, a sense of God's power, nearness, and 
kindness. The work of the teacher of Be- 
ginners should be to train the child in kind- 
ness and obedience, and to call forth in the 
child mind the consciousness of God's pres- 
ence and power. The child at this age is 
concerned not so much with Christian doc- 
trine as with Christian practise. The media 
through which the above object can t>e re- 
alized in the child are six: Sense-perception, 
memory, imitation, suggestion, general intel- 
ligence and imagination. 

Careful observation and study will reveal 
much of the lives of children, their abilities 
and their needs. The Beginners show the 
following characteristics : 

Restlessness 

Activity is the delight of the child-nature. 
It is also its necessity. It is as unnatural for 
a wide-awake child to be long quiet as for 
a grown man to play shinny or pussy-wants- 
a-corner. He must be active. Constantly to 



36 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

restrain his activity is cruel and harmful. 
To direct and use it will require sound sense 
and tact. The bright boy is likely to prefer 
the open air where he can talk and laugh and 
watch the butterflies and catch tadpoles and 
build sand palaces and fly kites and inhale 
the rich perfumes of flowers, to the small 
and often unattractive room Where he must 
sit quietly for a whole hour and just be told 
how to be good. But if this small boy and 
his equally active small sister can be intro- 
duced to a neat and pretty room, well ven- 
tilated, light and warm, filled with other 
boys and girls of like mold and presided 
over by a teacher whose heart is warm with 
love for the children and for the children's 
Savior; if he can be given the privilege of 
building his sand palaces and calling them 
Bethlehem; if he may watch the tiny fish in 
the child's aquarium, while he listens to the 
story of the disciples who left their nets to 
follow Jesus; if he may examine the delicate 
petals and inhale the sweet perfume of the 
flowers while he listens to the story of the 
beautiful Christ-life, it may be that he, like 
the shepherds, will seek the Babe of Beth- 
lehem, and learn to love Him who was the 



BEGINNERS 37 

Rose of Sharon, and like the Galilean fisher- 
men, leave all to follow Him who went 
about doing good. "He that winneth souls 
is wise," and the wisdom needed in winning 
the little ones is the reward of prayerful and 
sympathetic study of the Word of God and 
of child life. 

Selfishness 

The little child is selfish. He is the center 
of his own little world. He thinks of others 
only in relation to himself, and of other 
things only as they affect his own interest. 
This is not wrong. It is in harmony with the 
plan of human development. But he may be 
gently and gradually led away from himself 
toward a more unselfish love and broader in- 
terest. This will be effected most easily by 
example and story. 

Imagination 

The child has an active imagination. A 
doll is a real balby to the little mother. She 
will kiss and punish it in turn, because to 
her mind it can know and understand. To 
this faculty, doubtless, may be attributed 
many of the peculiar untruths of which 



38 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

usually truthful children seem to be guilty. 
Many of the "lies" of children are probably 
truth to them. They have not learned to 
discriminate between fact and fancy. Where 
necessary, they should be led to discover 
their error. The beautiful world of their 
own creation, however, should not be ruth- 
lessly destroyed. Explanation should not be 
too long or frequent. It is not necessary 
that the child adopt the exact idea of the 
teacher so long as his own is not actually 
harmful. 

InquisitiOeness 

"A child is a humanized, vitalized inter- 
rogation point." How else shall he learn? 
His world is filled with mystery. The un- 
known is all around him. His questions are 
often unanswerable, and where an answer is 
possible, a direct reply may not be wise. But 
an earnest question should never be ignored 
or answered lightly. It is worthy of honest 
attention. A question will probably remain 
in the child's mind until it does receive a 
satisfactory answer. Few duties require 
more skill and patience than that of answer- 
ing the questions of the little folks. They 



BEGINNERS 39 

are not childish to the child, but sober and 
earnest. We asked the same questions once 
and demanded an answer. The disposition 
to inquire often leads the child into forbid- 
den paths. The "meddlesome" child may 
be the child with the active brain. The dis- 
position should be directed, not condemned. 

Limited Vocabulary 

This is an important consideration all 
through the Sunday-school. But to the be- 
ginner it is all important. His stock of 
words is small. Many words of common use 
mean nothing to him. A child who sang 
again and again the familiar words, "Safe 
into the haven guide," thought that a "haven- 
guide" must be a beautiful place. Again, 
the meaning is not always comprehended 
even where the separate words may be un- 
derstood. A mother taught her child a Bible 
verse to be repeated in Sunday-school. The 
child insisted to the teacher that the verse 
was, "Come in, darling." Upon inquiry, it 
was found to be, "Walk in love." One little 
fellow reported that his class had sung, 
"Bringing in the Sheets." He said, "They 
sewed in the morning and they sewed at 



40 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

noon and they brought in the sheets at 
night." It is a fine art to be simple enough 
to teach a child. 

Emotional Life 

The little child is controlled by present 
emotion. He does what he feels like doing. 
He cries, and laughs while the tears are still 
glistening. He strikes his playmate and re- 
pents as soon as he sees the grief of his little 
friend. He has no great purpose toward 
either goodness or badness. He simply re- 
sponds quickly to his ever changing environ- 
ment. 

Imitation 

The child learns to do what he sees others 
do. He wants to be like older people. He may 
not understand principles, but he will im- 
itate action. Hence, simple beauty of char- 
acter and unconscious loveliness in action 
are all-important in the successful teacher. 
Here, too, the Bible story holds an excellent 
place. After the story, the child will try 
to be like Joseph or the captive maid or the 
boy of Nazareth. 



BEGINNERS 41 

Active Perception 

The perceptive powers are active but in- 
accurate. The child is often mistaken in re- 
gard to the sensations. He can easily be de- 
ceived into thinking he is too warm or too 
cold. Everything he sees or hears or handles 
leaves its impression on his soul. This is 
the age of greatest sensitivity. He may 
[hardly be conscious of a sight or sound, 
but it leaves its influence on his life. 
Now he receives the "set of the soul." True, 
later influences may turn him out of his 
course, but never again will it be so easy 
to put his feet into the right way. 

Now is the time to make him psychologi- 
cally good. It will be impossible for him to 
leave entirely behind the impressions of these 
early years. Every tear, every angry word, 
every smile or song or sunset, every per- 
fumed flower or blossoming field or murmur- 
ing brook, makes its contribution to the 
wealth of his soul-life. He may not criti- 
cise, he may not stop to question, he wilt 
simply accept of what he sees and hears and 
make it a part of himself. How much of 
beauty and truth and sunshine and heaven 
should enter into his environment. He will 



42 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

surely become like the atmosphere which he 
breathes. 

The Sunday-school hour is but one 
precious opportunity in the long, long week. 
If it is crowded with the sweetest, the 
purest, the best, the most loving and the 
most lovely, it is because it is planned for 
and prayed for. It is because the teacher 
herself breathes the atmosphere of the skies, 
not only on Sunday, but all the week long. 
Suggestive pictures are of special use here. 
Thoughts of Jesus' loving care and blessing 
are easily impressed upon the children, and 
the effect will be for right development of 
character. 

Credulity 

The child, at first, believes all that is told 
him. He has no contrary experience. He 
accepts the story of Santa Claus as readily 
as that of Samuel. There are no child skep- 
tics. Hence the ease with which spiritual 
truth may be imparted. Care must be taken 
lest error creep into the child's heart and 
abide there as securely as truth itself. The 
child's soul is hallowed ground. Let us plant 
it deeply with the Word of God. 



BEGINNERS 43 

Memory 

The child has little power to remember ab- 
stract truth. Indeed he does not perceive it. 
It must be put into concrete form. The com- 
mandment may make little impression, but 
the same truth put into story will awaken in- 
terest and do its work. Said a middle-aged 
man, who had embraced skeptical ideas, "I 
cannot get away from the stories of my Sun- 
day-school days. I do not now accept the 
stories of Jesus and other Bible characters, 
but they are like beautiful lights hung in the 
pathway of my infancy, and it is impossible 
for me to escape their influence, nor do I 
wish to do so. They have brightened all my 
life with innocent beauty." 

Expression 

The child enjoys the rhythm of poetry. He 
will get the thought more quickly and retain 
it longer if it is expressed in rhyme. It is 
not necessary that he understand all of the 
poem. A few ideas he will make his own and 
others will be revealed to him as he advances. 
He will be found often to express his own 
ideas in rhyme. 



44 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Undeveloped Porters 

Judgment, discrimination, reason, com- 
parison are of course present, but enter 
slightly into the life of the child at this age. 
Little progress will be made by appealing 
to these faculties. 

The Beginners' Room 

If possible a separate room should be de- 
voted to the Beginners. This may be small, 
but must be scrupulously clean and orderly. 
Neat, pretty paper, unmarred paint, dainty 
curtains and simple, childlike furnishing, 
will attract the little ones and increase the 
size of the class. A low table, around whicn 
the children may be seated, each in his own 
small chair, is essential. If the expense of 
these cannot be met, have a small table made 
of ordinary boards neatly planed and care- 
fully painted. Arrange for the seating in 
any way possible, but make the children 
comfortable. If the teacher and the school 
are thoroughly in earnest, much can be done 
which to others would seem impossible. If a 
separate room cannot be had, let a screen or 
curtain seclude the class from the rest of the 
school. Care must be taken not to place the 



BEGINNERS 45 

little ones in a dark corner, for light is es- 
sential. 

"Material 

The material used will vary. In some 
schools the teacher's own ingenuity and tact 
may be the only treasury on which to draw. 
A set of building blocks should be provided, 
also sticks for outlining and a quantity of 
white sand for map work. Small mounted 
sticks, one or two inches in length, are some- 
times used to represent people. A small 
aquarium may be made of a glass jar. Reg- 
ular aquarium jars may be obtained at small 
expense. These may be partly filled with 
water. A few stones and shells placed in the 
bottom, a piece of seaweed added, and we 
have a pretty home for two or three gold- 
fish. Many lessons will suggest their own 
material. Jesus talked about flowers, grass, 
stones, water, salt, wheat, thorns, seeds, 
fruit. These are easily obtained, and, tact- 
fully used, will make the lessons present and 
real. 

Of course, the children will be allowed 
to do the work themselves and to handle the 
material, but only in connection with the 



46 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

study of the lesson, and at the direction of 
the teacher. Care should be taken that the 
exercise is not allowed to degenerate into 
mere play or even into the commonplace of 
the day-school. This would entirely spoil 
the effect. If the teacher has a reverent 
spirit and feels the infinite importance of her 
work, she will unconsciously inspire the chil- 
dren with the same spirit. Many help- 
ful lessons, outside of the regular Bible 
story, may be taught in connection with the 
handling of the material — neatness, unselfish- 
ness, quietness, reverence — all these should 
have their place. 

The Teacher 

"As is the teacher, so is the class." Says 
Mrs. Lamoreaux, "The child's conception of 
Christ will be what he sees in the teacher." 
She must be acquainted with God. If she 
is not, she will not reveal Him to the little 
ones. She must know the Bible. If not, how 
shall she bring its beauty to the heart of the 
child? She must drink deeply of the fountain 
of divine truth. She must be ready to make 
any sacrifice necessary to do her work well. 
She must know the child. She must see 



BEGINNERS 47 

things from his viewpoint and feel as he 
feels. She must be sympathetic. No amount 
of mere knowledge will make her successful 
if she lacks the sympathetic touch. This is 
the key to the child heart. 

Health 

Too much emphasis cannot be placed on 
the health of the little ones. A poorly venti- 
lated room is responsible for many a failure. 
Too much or too little heat, a dark room or 
uncomfortable seats, have robbed the Sunday- 
school of many a bright boy. Each child re- 
quires attention. Intellectual dullness or 
moral deformity are often the result of physi- 
cal deformity. Physical imperfection may 
result in extreme sensitiveness. If the teacher 
understands these conditions, much can be 
done to overcome their unhappy results. 

Music 

In song, the beauty of the voice and the 
opportunity for action is added to the rhyth- 
mic charm of poetry. Music is especially at- 
tractive to the wee ones. They love to sing. 
It is the more helpful because all can en- 
gage in it, and they will carry the sentiment 



48 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

with them through the weeks and through 
the years. Who of us were not once de- 
lighted with "Jesus Loves Me, This I Know," 
and "Little Children Who Love Their Re- 
deemer"? A large part of the hour may he 
spent in singing carefully selected songs. 

The Spirit of the Room 

The spirit of the room must not be con- 
strained. The atmosphere must be free, easy, 
natural, hopeful, helpful, reverent. As much 
liberty should be given as is consistent with 
good order. 

We may feel sadly insufficient for the task, 
but let us do our best. We shall do better 
sometime. Let us give ourselves, actively, un- 
selfishly, to our work. It will pay. Let us not 
become discouraged because others can do 
better. They, too, had to learn how. Let us 
gather in the wee ones, give them glad wel- 
come, and lead them gently, lovingly, 
patiently to the Truth. Sometime the wee 
ones, no longer children, shall gather around 
and tell us that we led them to the Christ, 
and Jesus shall say of our service, "Ye did 
it unto me." 



IV. 

THE PRIMARY AGE. 

The Primary department includes chil- 
dren from six to eight years of age. During 
this period the children are entering the pub- 
lic schools and getting their first lessons in 
systematic study. Their ideas are multiply- 
ing rapidly on account of their new asso- 
ciates and surroundings. These considera- 
tions, growing out of their expanding pow- 
ers, require for the primary children special 
study and treatment. 

Physical Characteristics 

The transition from the beginners' to the 
primary age is not specially marked. Physi- 
cal growth is rapid, and toward the close of 
the period the brain attains nearly its full 
size. A loss of vigorous health sometimes ap- 
pears. The child seems tired and nervous 
and unable to do the work of earlier years. 

49 



50 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

He should have nutritious food and more 
hours for sleep. 

PerceptiOe Porters and Reason 

Perception is quicker and more definite. 
The child is interested in much that was be- 
fore unnoticed. During this period he be- 
gins to reason about the things he sees, but 
little in the abstract. He will not remain 
long on a problem unless it appeals to his 
activity. It is the age of puzzles and co- 
nundrums. The study of Bible geography 
may be made interesting by the use of dis- 
sected maps. The awakening power of rea- 
son makes the child less credulous. He will 
sometimes criticise the actions of others. If 
the teacher does not know her lesson, he may 
discover the fact. The impatient frown, the 
slight variation from truth, will not escape 
his notice. He may not seem to notice, but 
as one boy expressed it, "I know more than 
she thinks." However, he respects author- 
ity and readily yields to it, if the one exer- 
cising it has won his respect and love. 

Memory 

The memory is stronger than formerly, 



THE PRIMARY AGE 51 

though not yet at its height. Bible verses 
and longer selections may profitably be 
committed to memory, together with hymns 
and memory gems, and these should have 
some relation to the present needs of the 
child. 

Curiosity 

Curiosity is wide awake and persistent. 
The primary child is anxious to know why 
and desires certainty in what is told him. 
He sees more because he knows more and 
questions more eagerly because he sees so 
much that he does not understand. Ques- 
tions about life and creation and God and 
the unseen world are the result of his con- 
stantly widening environment. It is no small 
task to answer a child's why and when and 
how, but it must be done. If the home and 
Sunday-school neglect this all-important 
fact, less worthy agencies will perform our 
work for us, and we shall learn too late that 
they have won the childish confidence, which 
we so much desire to enjoy. 

Attention 

At this age the child can attend more 
easily than in the Beginners' age, and if the 



52 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

teacher can catch his attention, by suggestive 
sign, word or act, it may be possible to inter- 
est him for some moments in gospel truth. 
The Bible story will hold attention more 
easily if it corresponds to some part of the 
life of the child. 

Imagination 

The imagination is now more nearly un- 
der control. The child is still capable of cre- 
ating fanciful worlds and telling long stor- 
ies just as they come to him. But there is 
a more distinct difference between his real 
world and the world of fancy. A. R. Taylor, 
in the "Study of the Child," tells of a little 
maiden, who quietly informed her mother, 
who had spent some moments calling her, 
though she had been lying in the grass near- 
by, that she was playing cow, and so of 
course, could not hear. The child will con- 
struct his imaginary world with the materials 
he has on hand. If the pure and good has been 
his environment, his imagination will work 
along the same line. "Let's play we are 
keeping house," "Let's pretend we're rob- 
bers," "Let's be Filipinos," are expressions 
reflecting his daily life. Two little friends 



THE PRIMARY AGE 53 

were once found carrying on a conversation 
with spools and buttons, and explained that 
the buttons were children and the spools 
were angels who were coming down to bear 
the children to heaven. This power of the 
imagination makes it possible for the Bible 
story to become real to the child and for the 
love and presence of Jesus to become part of 
his life. 

The Social Instinct 

The social instinct is now awakening. The 
primary child usually has his chum. He is 
becoming interested in other places and 
times. The beginner's "Kingdom of Now" 
is gradually widening into the world of long 
ago and the realms of everywhere. Ideas of 
sympathy, self-sacrifice and service may be 
cultivated by example and story. The 
thought of Jesus leaving His beautiful home 
and His heavenly friends will awaken 
thought and bring response. 

Affection 

The primary child loves his teacher. She 
is the ideal in his small eyes of all that is 
heavenly, wise and good. If this confidence 



54 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

is never shaken and this affection continues, 
her influence over his life may be almost un- 
bounded. She is interested in all that in- 
terests him, and his constant delight is to 
please her and merit her approval. Report 
is made of a little maiden who refused at 
evening to pray for her elder brother be- 
cause during the day he had made an un- 
kind remark about her Sunday-school 
teacher. This pure and childish love is the 
inspiration of the primary class. 

Childhood Religion 

The child has a religious nature. This is 
a divine endowment. Before the parent or 
the teacher begins his work, God has 
wrought. He has preempted the heart for 
Himself. He has laid down in the constitu- 
tion of every child a moral nature and re- 
ligious impulses, which condition and pre- 
suppose his entire religious life and develop- 
ment. The human soul everywhere reaches 
out toward God, and "is restless until it finds 
rest in Him." 

The aim of the teacher in dealing with; 
child life is the development of the religious 
impulses and the creation in the heart of 



THE PRIMARY AGE 55 

conscious spiritual life. The object is al- 
ways Christian character, but the method 
necessarily varies with different ages. It must 
have regard to the changing capacities and 
needs of the child. 'Childhood religion is 
different from adult religion. The latter is 
concerned with theological doctrine, the 
former with practical action. 

While conversion can never be less than a 
new birth from above, inwrought by the op- 
eration of the Holy Spirit, it must not be 
expected that the change in the child will be 
precisely what it would be in the case of an 
adult. The life of a child can be turned 
easily. His feelings are easily moved upon. 
He responds readily to the truth. His will, 
however, is weak. The parent must constantly 
assist him to perform his little duties, and 
in case of failure, through temper or other- 
wise, he must find the mercy-seat with the 
little one and quickly win him back in re- 
pentance and contrition. 

The spiritual life of a child requires care 
and culture. It is a tender plant and will 
suffer from neglect. How many little ones 
have fallen by the wayside and been left 
to die. Happy -the child that knows the 



56 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

secret place of prayer with mother, and has 
felt the warm tears drop on his upturned 
face as mother prayed for him, and tried to 
keep his little feet in the path of life. 

Children very early experience a spiritual 
hunger. They take naturally to the thought 
of God. They find it easy to pray. They are 
trustful, simple, and sincere. On the other 
hand they are incapable of a spiritual con- 
ception of God. They do not comprehend 
religion in its intellectual aspect. The high- 
er religious emotions of sympathy, self-sacri- 
fice, mercy, and repentance are undeveloped. 
Childhood is the period of activity; hence 
the religion of this period must be essentially 
action — religious deeds. 

Religious training for children under six 
years will consist in inculcating the habit 
of prayer and of prompt obedience; in famil- 
iarizing them with the customs of religion; 
in providing associations with other children, 
and suggesting unselfish acts; and in direct- 
ing all their activites in the spirit of relig- 
ion, the spirit of kindness and of love. 

From six to ten is a critical period in the 
religious history of a child. During this 
period he realizes more and more his own 



THE PRIMARY AGE 57 

individuality. He develops gradually the 
moral judgment, or conscience. He shares in 
the activities of the family and has a grow- 
ing interest in human life, in the acts and 
adventures of others. The awakening of the 
soul is attended by deep heart stirrings. The 
pleasures and pains attending the first ex- 
ercise of conscience are keen. The sense of 
God and the supernatural is strong and 
abiding. 

In this early period when it is so easy to 
pray the child should be helped to form the 
habit of prayer. Daily prayer at regular 
times should be an essential part of the pro- 
gram of his life. The habit of genuine prayer 
is the starting-point of spiritual religion, and 
will insure a spiritual life. As the child's 
needs increase, the parent should help him 
in the expression of his petitions. A child 
began his prayer one Sabbath evening in 
language much beyond his years, "Lord, we 
thank Thee for the sanctuary and for sanc- 
tuary privileges." Others have tried to pray 
but their efforts have ended in mute embar- 
rassment, which has discouraged them sorely. 
These attempts are pathetic appeals for help, 
and originate in a need as real as that which 



58 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

prompted the disciples to say, "Teach us to 
pray." 

As the sense of self increases, it should be 
fed by increased fellowship with his par- 
ents. They should be his companions in 
work and play and worship. This sharing 
in their activities will strengthen and guide 
the child in his developing sense of person- 
ality. Religious training will secure respect 
for authority. This may be secured by the 
parent who deals with the child firmly but 
kindly, without caprice or arbitrariness, and 
who himself respects and obeys law. 

The habitual respect for parental author- 
ity and obedience to law is a most important 
preparation for the full submission to the 
will of God. The child's growing interest in 
persons, his tendency to estimate them, to 
approve and to condemn, suggest the impor- 
tance of feeding his mind and soul on the 
best stories of literature, and especially of 
the Bible. Train him to admire the persons 
who use power rightly, and to condemn the 
base and selfish. Good stories will go far in 
this period toward shaping the ideals of his 
life. 

The Sunday-school should not only teach 



THE PRIMARY AGE 59 

the children religious truth but also from 
time to time press them into a decision to 
surrender their little lives fully to Jesus. 
Decision days should be frequent. Next 
should be arranged those special services for 
the children at which they can have the op- 
portunity to pray and sing and speak for 
Jesus in their own little way. If they try 
to imitate their elders, it will be mere per- 
formance, but if they are helped to a natural 
expression of their religious life it will 
strengthen them for the service of prayer 
and testimony in coming years. 

A great responsibility is upon the church 
to provide and maintain such a service. No 
one feels quite so much at home with God as 
he who has from early childhood talked fa- 
miliarly with Him and about Him. 



m 

THE JUNIOR AGE. 

The junior period is the period of boyhood 
and girlhood which extends to about the 
thirteenth year. It is a time of increasing 
interest in the activities of the family, a 
growing sense of responsibility, and an en- 
larging social sense which manifests itself 
in the tendency to form groups and team- 
plays. 

General Characteristics 

The junior is wide awake. He is healthy, 
energetic, frank, and possesses an excellent 
appetite both physical and mental. He is on 
good terms with the world, enjoys life, be- 
lieves in his friends, is willing generally to 
do his part, and wishes, above all things, to 
become a man. 

Conscience Building 

William Byron Forbush says, "The princi- 



THE JUNIOR AGE 61 

pal thing a boy has to do before twelve is to 
grow a conscience." Before the junior age 
the child has been under obedience. He is 
still under the authority of others ; but apart 
from this, he feels a growing sense of per- 
sonal responsibility. He must do some 
things and leave others undone, not because 
he has been directed thus but because he 
feels it to be right. It is now that he learns 
to obey himself, to measure up to his own 
growing sense of oughtness. 

Delight in Ownership 

The junior possesses a strong sense of 
ownership. The^ youth wishes now to have 
his own room, his own desk, his own box 
for the storing of his treasures. The myster- 
ious depths of his pocket reveal a wealth of 
nails, strings, stones, buttons, spools, and 
fish-hooks, riches of field and wood and 
spring. Well it is if nothing less innocent 
finds its way thither. A girl has her box of 
cards and pictures and dainty handkerchiefs 
and perfume and childish fancy-work. And 
these are valuable to the child, and the right 
to possess them should be respected. The 
Sunday-school may utilize the disposition 



• 62 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

by inviting collections or Bible pictures 
and curios from Bible or missionary lands. 
Maps and charts may be constructed which 
should become the permanent possession of 
the child. A Bible should also become his 
own property. 

'Memory 

This is the golden age of memory. At no 
other time can the child absorb so much and 
remember so well much that will help him 
in present temptations and difficulties. Much 
also that we know he will need later, can be 
memorized. It is the time for constant 
repetition and drill. The junior's memory 
should be literally filled with spiritual truth 
from which he can draw in the emergencies 
of the future. Hymns, Bible selections, 
whole chapters, carefully selected, and facts 
regarding Bible geography and history 
should be accurately committed to memory. 
Much that is not now understood will be re- 
vealed to the larger reason in later experi- 
ence, and will present a bulwark of strength 
against the coming storms of temptation and 
doubt. "It is a sin for parents and teachers 
to allow the children to pass this period 



THE JUNIOR AGE 63 

without literally saturating them with out- 
lines of Old and New Testament history 
and many of the choicest passages of the 
Bible." 

"Reading Craze 1 * 

During this age the child develops an in- 
tense love for reading. Read he must and 
will. Stories of adventure, of remarkable 
achievements of heroes and heroines, appeal 
to his superabundant life. The stories^ of 
Livingstone, or Paton, or Grace Darling, will 
make as strong an appeal as "Cowboy Jack'' 
or "Wed and Won," or books of like char- 
acter. 

Some of the most thrilling stories of ad- 
venture are found in the Bible and in the 
annals of missionary life. But the child 
will not always find them without some as- 
sistance. It is largely a question of what is 
conveniently at hand. If the child is sur- 
rounded by an abundance of the best litera- 
ture, adapted to his age, he is not likely to 
search for that which is harmful. If he is 
encamped beside the wells of Elim, he will 
not spend much time in searching for the 
bitter waters of Ma rah. 



64 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Hero Worship, Ideals 

From an early age the child has been 
forming ideals. At first the members of his 
own family were chosen. As his horizon 
widened, teachers and those who were more 
distant lived in the shrine of his heart. Now 
he is beginning to value moral character and 
his hero may be good as well as great. But he 
must be strong <and skilful and able to ac- 
complish things. Here, too, the environment 
will influence the character of the ideal. It 
is said that any people will become like the 
god which they worship; so any child will 
become transformed into the likeness of 
those whom he admires. The parents and 
teachers should always be heroic in the 
heart of the child. Yet their lives may be too 
ordinary and commonplace to meet fully the 
demands of the eager, aspiring life. The 
great and good of this and other times, those 
who have made great sacrifices and done 
deeds of might, should be ever before thtj 
child. Later he will learn to admire the 
greatness of every-day heroism. Nowhere can 
be found such a Hall of Fame as in the 
Word of God. What child will not become 
intensely interested in the history of Joseph, 



THE JUNIOR AGE 65 

or in the boldness of Daniel ; or in the dan- 
gers and courage and success of Esther, or 
the exaltation of the cup-bearer of King 
Artaxerxes? It is said that less than five 
per cent, of children choose Bible characters 
as their ideals. Would not a sufficient ac- 
quaintance with sacred history remedy this 
defect? 

The junior loves to do something, but his 
work must be something definitely assigned. 
If he is told to study his lesson, he will prob- 
ably forget it. If he is asked to bring in a 
report next Sunday on Jonathan smiting the 
garrison of the Philistines, his eagerness to 
relate what he has learned will bring him to 
class, storm or shine. Of course, his en- 
thusiasm will depend largely on the enthu- 
siasm of the teacher. A dull, listless teacher 
cannot lead a class of lively boys and girls. 
They will find other lines of interest. To lead 
the child to admire any character, however 
excellent, will be of little value unless in 
that excellence he discovers the stamp of the 
Divine. As all the Roman roads lead to the 
Imperial City, so all Bible teachings must 
lead to the Savior of men. Jesus is the per- 
fect ideal. The children must be constantly 



66 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

] 

led to see not only the Divine Lord but the 
perfect man, Christ Jesus. 

Habits 

This is the habit-forming period. In ear- 
lier years the child has acted mostly from 
instinct. Now he is to form those habits of 
thinking and acting which constitute "nine- 
tenths of life." Now each act is tracing 
more deeply the tiny paths in the delicate 
brain-cells over which the thoughts and 
doings of later years shall find easy passage. 
How shall the Sunday-school assist the child 
in forming correct habits? A correct act, 
once secured, will make its repetition more 
easy. 

Now the boy or girl is all life and interest. 
If the act desired can be made attractive, if 
it can be secured by an appeal to the growing 
sense of right, or to the desire to be manly 
or womanly, both of which are now strong, a 
much greater service has been done than if 
the act is secured simply by a command. If 
the child performs the desired act because 
parent or teacher does it, or because the en- 
vironment makes it the natural thing to do, 
it will probably be repeated until a habit is 



THE JUNIOR AGE 67 

formed. Thus the child will not only learn 
obedience but will be unconsciously slipping 
into correct forms of action invaluable in 
later life. Promptness, neatness, thoughtful - 
ness of others, regular Bible study and 
prayer, church attendance, systematic of- 
ferings — all these the Sunday-school should 
endeavor to secure. 

The Social Instinct 

The social instinct which in the preceding 
age was satisfied with a chum now demands 
the club or the gang. This spirit reaches its 
climax in the succeeding period. With girls 
this disposition manifests itself in more or 
less domestic ways. Boys usually seek a 
barn-loft or deserted cellar, a hollow tree or 
some self -constructed den or cave for their 
trysting-place. The glare of the bonfire, the 
roasted potatoes, the secret call, the kindred 
spirit — what boy does not know these de- 
lights? Boys and girls organize separately 
and are inclined to look with contempt upon 
the opposite sex. This suggests the separa- 
tion of the sexes for the most effective Sun- 
day-school work. The boy who thinks that 
the Sunday-school is "fit only for girls" may 



68 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

acquire a genuine interest if he is put into 
a class of real boys with some manly man 
as teacher who has not moved too far from 
his own boyhood. A girl also, who is an- 
noyed by those "horrid boys", may do much 
better work in a class composed ' only off 
girls. Other things being equal, a man will 
do better work with boys at this age and a 
woman with girls, because each approaches 
more nearly the ideal toward which the child 
is reaching. Nothing, however, can take the 
place of a noble spirit and unselfish purpose, 
a sympathetic heart and a genuine acquaint- 
ance with the Lord Jesus Christ. The 
abounding life and the desire flor society 
give splendid opportunity for social eve- 
nings with the teacher, for tramps and out- 
ings, in which the teacher can prove his 
interest in the child, apart from the Sunday- 
school hour. 

Religious Life 

The purpose of the Sunday-school is to lead 
the children to God and to gather them into 
the church. This should be the purpose of 
every teacher and the end of every lesson. 
If the teacher is consciously in touch with 



THE JUNIOR AGE 69 

Jesus, if with one hand in the hand of her 
Lord, while with the other she directs the 
steps of the child, the children and the chil- 
dren's Savior will not remain long apart. The 
boy and girl will see the truth and beauty of 
the Christ-life and earnestly desire a per- 
sonal acquaintance with Him. Conversiona 
may occur much earlier, but the child should 
not be allowed to pass through the junior 
department without a supreme effort being 
made to bring him to a personal knowledge 
of Jesus and an open confession of his faith 
and love. Is this asking too much of the 
Sunday-school? Is not the promise sure to 
him who goeth forth and weepeth, bearing 
precious seed? and shall not his rejoicing be 
even greater if the little ones are among 
his garnered sheaves? 

Equipment 

The juniors should have a; separate room. 
They do not wish to be considered little peo- 
ple. The methods used with them are differ- 
ent, and a separate room will give greater 
freedom. Their abundant activity will find 
useful expression in action — songs, march- 
ing, drills, and note-book work. Coupled with 



70 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

their general frankness and good-will this 
activity may easily be converted into habits 
^of service for the aged and infirm and 
ntilized along temperance and missionary 
lines. However, the genuineness of the child 
of this age causes the boy, especially, to de- 
spise the "goody-goody" reputation, and 
some skill is required to avoid making this 
appearance prominent. 



(VI., 

THE INTERMEDIATE AGE. 

At about twelve years of age the child en- 
ters upon a series of physical and mental 
changes which transform the boy into a 
man, the girl into a woman. This period 
of transformation includes the years between 
twelve and twenty-four. It is called the 
period of adolescence, and is usually divided 
into three periods — early adolescence, from 
twelve to fifteen; middle adolescence, from 
sixteen to eighteen or nineteen; later 
adolescence, from nineteen to twenty-four. 

Adolescence 

The changes that take place at this period 
are important and fraught with great con- 
sequences. It has been compared to a new 
birth. The individual comes into possession 
of new bodily powers and functions. His 
intellectual capacity is enlarged, his emo- 

71 



72 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

tional life deepened, and his moral and 
aesthetic sense developed. He becomes a 
larger factor in society, accepts social cus- 
toms, selects a vocation, and makes a home. 
The thoughts, ideals, ambitions, and tenden- 
cies which control him during this period 
will determine his after-life. The way in 
which the new life finds encouragement and 
opportunity for expression leads to destiny. 

The Intermediate Age 

This is the period of early adolescence. 
The characteristics manifested during this 
period will depend upon training and asso- 
ciations. No two persons will exhibit the 
same traits and tendencies, but to all will 
come great physical and mental changes 
which affect their physical, social, moral, 
and religious life. 

Physical Changes 

During this period growth is most rapid. 
The heart, lungs, and arteries increase in size. 
The sense organs are strengthened. The 
brain and nervous system undergo changes. 
The bones and muscles grow rapidly, so that 
this becomes the awkward age. 



THE INTERMEDIATE AGE 73 

Nen> Mental Life 

"The mental organism undergoes a com- 
plete revolution, though not a reconstitution. 
New desires, emotions, passions, impulses, 
come into being." New questions, new ideals, 
new ambitions, occupy and perplex the mind. 
"The youth begins to idealize life and to 
dream over it. It is the time of halos, of 
visions of unbounded possibilities, of angels 
in disguise." 

Self-Consciousness 

This trait now appears in a marked de- 
gree. The boy is developing individuality. 
His attention is fixed upon himself. He 
becomes more self-assertive, more important 
in his own estimation. He thinks that every- 
one is observing him. This may result in 
extreme sensitiveness, manifesting itself in 
extreme timidity and bashfulness. To appear 
in company is a misery and to take part in 
a public program is an unspeakable torture. 
Or the morbid sensitiveness may appear as 
"an exaggerated self-conceit", which exhibits 
itself in braggadocio, in teasing and domi- 
neering, in rebellion against authority, stub- 
borness, and wilfulness. This conceit of im- 



74 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

portance, ability, and knowledge is hard for 
the teacher to meet wisely and well, and will 
call for great tact, perseverance, and pa- 
tience. 

The Gang Impulse 

With the growing spirit of independence, 
there comes a craving for sympathy and so- 
cial satisfaction which results in a further 
development of the club spirit. This longing 
leads both boys and girls to seek companion- 
ship with chums, and in close and secret 
groups, clubs, or "gangs." Friendships 
made during this period are usually lasting. 
The gang is a company of congenial spirits 
of the same sex, organized for some definite 
activities, for team-plays or to combat other 
gangs. This gang instinct is essentially 
social, and normal at this period. The ac- 
tive and daring spirit enforced by the secret 
organization of the clan leads to various 
forms of mischief and theft. Fortunate 
are those whose dreamings and emotions 
are shared by their parents. Too often mis- 
understood by their elders, they form per- 
nicious habits, and drift into the criminal 
class through lack of sufficient satisfaction 



THE INTERMEDIATE AGE 75 

for their natural desire for sociability and 
freedom. The wise teacher will not attempt 
to suppress this gang spirit, but to utilize it 
in teaching the lessons of self-control and 
Christian altruism. 

Truancy 

The aspiration and blissful idealism of this 
period cause many youths to be discontented 
with school life. Truancy is the worst at 
thirteen, and fourteen is the age when most 
pupils permanently leave school. To many 
there comes a temptation to leave home. 
Home work and study seem too commonplace. 
Truancy and vagrancy are followed by dime- 
novel reading, pilfering, and general de- 
structiveness. "This age of boys is the sor- 
row of parents, the despair of teachers, and 
the bane of the officers of the law." Doctor 
Haslett says that this transitional stage 
seems to be a battle-ground where the forces 
of heredity and environment are struggling 
for supremacy. Eight and wrong, strength 
and strategy, emotion and intelligence, re- 
ligion and indifference, vice and virtue, ego- 
ism and altruism — all seem to be engaged here 
in a conflict as complex as it is severe, as 



76 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

vital and momentous as it is mysterious and 
necessary. 

At this time scolding, nagging, pious ad- 
vice, and punishment are worse than use- 
less. The greatest force for control and devel- 
opment of character is the sympathetic 
friendship of a mature Christian man or 
woman. If parents will try to understand 
their children, select their companions, pro- 
vide for the gratification of their social 
nature in home gatherings instead of leaving 
it to them to find some secret meeting-place, 
and establish and foster intimate relations of 
friendship and confidence, their moral and 
religious influence over them will be in- 
creased many fold. The Sunday-school teacher 
must recognize and provide for the craving 
for social exercise, and realize to some de- 
gree his pupils' ideal of man and friend. 

Opposite Tendencies 

The pupils of this age are the despair of 
many Sunday-school teachers. They mani- 
fest contradictory tendencies. They oscillate 
between childhood and maturity. On one 
Sunday they are silly, childish, irrepressible; 
the next they are serious, docile, and respon- 



THE INTERMEDIATE AGE 77 

sive to spiritual truth. "The equilibrium of 
the entire organism is disturbed greatly at 
this stage of transition, and the youth must 
be odd, strange, disappointing, and obstinate 
at times. The developing forces within, and 
the rapidly enlarging world without, make 
this a stage of uneven, uncertain, and unbal- 
anced feeling, thought, and volition." 

What the Teacher Must Be 

The situation in the intermediate classes 
requires the best teachers in the school. The 
wise superintendent puts his most competent 
leadership here. The work of bungling, quack 
teachers in the other departments may be 
partly counteracted by other attractive in- 
fluences in the school, but in this department, 
if the pupils are not held to the Sunday- 
school, they rarely, if ever, return. 

1. The teacher must be patient. He must 
remember that this is the sowing time. Let 
him be content to wait. Tremendous forces 
are doing silent but effective work. 

2. He must be sympathetic. The youth- 
ful follies may be ridiculous, the conceits ab- 
surd, and the plans visionary, but the wise 
teacher will manifest a sympathetic inter- 



78 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

est in all these, seeing here the stirrings of 
ambition, the movings of strong desires to 
accomplish, and the opening up of new vis- 
tas and visions of possibilities and powers. 

3. He must be a friend. Friendship im- 
plies fellowship, communion, participated ac- 
tivities, a common interest. He will know 
the life of each pupil and each pupil will 
know and trust him. He will take pains to 
keep abreast of his young friend's work and 
thought. He will talk over his studies, en- 
ter into his recreations, participate in his 
plans and ambitions, congratulate him on 
his successes, and mourn with him in his 
losses. Many times he will find a point of 
contact by reading with him and talking over 
a book, by taking a walk or a holiday in his 
company, or in a quiet hour of social inter- 
course. 

It takes time and an unselfish spirit to be 
a good friend, but this is the time when 
friendship with boys and girls counts. To 
establish this open and affectionate relation 
between himself and the members of his 
class will pay a hundredfold. No Christmas 
gift or other act of kindness or affection will 
take the place of giving one's self in personal 



THE INTERMEDIATE AGE 79 

friendship. This explains the power of 
Jesus over the human life. "I have called 
you friends; for all things that I have heard 
of my Father I have made known unto you." 
Sharing with others is the essence of friend- 
ship, the secret of influence. 

What the Teacher Must Vo 

1. He must provide for social activity. 
The boisterous and blustering energy must 
have a chance to expend itself. Find a re> 
lief and outlet for this superabundant as- 
sertiveness in piling a poor widow's wood, 
beautifying the churchyard, earning money 
to support an India orphan, in making maps 
and models, collecting missionary and tem- 
perance curios, statistics, and information, 
and in occasional long walks and half-holi- 
days. Let the class be organized and all 
these things done by associated effort. 

2. Supplement the reading. In place of 
the "blood and thunder" stories of unreal 
life, put into the boy's hand good stories of 
general interest— biography, travel, adven- 
ture, and discovery. Create an appetite for 
a book by giving some idea of the contents 
or rehearsing choice bits of anecdote or dia- 



80 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

logue. Begin if necessary with the lighter 
types, but constantly grade up to the stand- 
ard authors. A teacher who can direct the 
adolescent's reading is molding life. 

3. Recognize growing independence. A 
growing independence is as natural to this 
stage as dependence is to the child. To re- 
press it is to invite lasting weakness, or con- 
stant friction and ultimate lack of control. 
The teacher must respect the boy's independ- 
ent choice and judgment. He must allow in- 
dependence of thought and action. Unwise 
conclusions and unfortunate acts must not 
be too quickly condemned. Judgment and 
choice are developed by exercise. The boy 
desires to regulate his own conduct, and he 
should be allowed to an increasing extent to 
act independently of the dictation of parent 
and teacher and on his own initiative and 
responsibility. Allow him to express his 
opinions, and to have a voice in the rules 
and laws which are to govern his conduct. 
Nothing expands and develops youth like a 
sense of responsibility. Respect his develop- 
ing conscience. It may be weak and erratic, 
sensitive or severe, but if respected and cul- 
tivated, out of weakness will come the 



THE INTERMEDIATE AGE 81 

strength to hold steady in temptation's dark- 
est hour. 

4. Dwell upon the heroic. The teacher 
will acknowledge his admiration for strength. 
The idealizing tendency of youth at first 
sets up a hero of physical strength and cour- 
age. The teacher will show that this is in- 
adequate. Strength of body needs to be sup- 
plemented by strength of mind. And mental 
strength must be devoted to worthy ends. 
And so he can teach effectively the lessons of 
moral courage and the strength of Christian 
character. 

5. Find lessons in the New Testament. 
It is stated on authority that before adoles- 
cence children prefer the Old Testament, but 
as they make their way into a life of larger 
and better ideals they "show a decided inter- 
est in the New Testament, especially in the 
four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. 
They also show a decided interest in Jesus 
and the principal disciples. The interest in 
John the disciple, is an early adolescent in- 
terest, while the interest in Jesus culminates 
somewhat later and is sustained through- 
out." The New Testament is full of grand 
ideals which appeal to youth. It provides 



82 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

a great doctrinal system which meets his 
growing propensity for discussion and argu- 
ment. It holds up for emulation the Christ, 
whose splendid manhood, unworldly conse- 
cration to the accomplishment of noble pur- 
pose, and unfailing strength and courage 
move the youthful heart to admiration and 
devotion. 

Importance for Religion 

We are told that in the twelfth year 
occurred an important event in the re- 
ligious development of the youthful Christ. 
This stage has always been recognized as of 
great religious importance. The years twelve 
and thirteen show a great increase in the 
number of conversions. Religion in its spir- 
itual character is now better apprehended. 
Growing individuality, devotion to ideals of 
life and character, transition from a set of 
rules to govern him to freely accepted princi- 
ples — all contribute to make this a most op- 
portune time for the youth to accept the 
Christ Man as his Friend and Ideal. 



VII. 

THE SENIOR AGE. 

The senior age corresponds to the period 
of middle adolescence, from fifteen or sixteen 
to about nineteen. The characteristics are 
somewhat the same as in the preceding age 
except that they are intensified. 

Mental Growth 

The intermediates are characterized by 
sudden changes and awakenings; the seniors 
show an ever progressive mental develop- 
ment. New reservoirs of intellectual energy 
seem to be tapped. The reason develops rap- 
idly. Interest is manifested in all the 
thought and activities of adult life. They are 
abashed at no intellectual feat. They will 
debate anybody on any subject. 

This is the period of deep sentiment, par- 
ticularly social sentiment. There is great 
attraction toward persons of the opposite 



84 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

sex. Questions relating to marriage and 
home are felt to be serious. This is the age 
of social gatherings. Nature too has a new 
fascination and awakens deep feeling. 

With growing intellect and deepening sen- 
timent there comes strength of will. The 
emotions are easily stirred, and these stimu- 
late to feats of great endurance. It is the 
age of great activity and productiveness. "If 
the activity be turned to good ends, it en- 
riches the world; many of the most signif- 
icant additions ever made to art, science, 
literature, philosophy, and religion have 
come from young lives scarcely out of their 
teens." 

2>ouht 

Just as questioning characterizes the ear- 
lier period of youth, doubt and uncer- 
tainty are characteristic of this stage. The 
break with authority and tradition, which 
begins at thirteen, culminates at eighteen or 
nineteen. Young people must see the reason 
for things, the principles underlying custom 
and conduct. What they can not see the rea- 
son for, or the cause of, they are inclined to 
reject. This tendency to doubt centers about 



THE SENIOR AGE 85 

religious questions. If a young man's relig- 
ious training has been strict, and the relig- 
ion of the home positive and unquestioned, 
the greater the doubt. 

As developing reason asserts itself, he 
tries its strength on things beyond the 
power of reason. The tendency to doubt is 
normal to every young man or woman who 
thinks and whose growing individualism 
seeks a standing-place independent of author- 
ity or tradition. The teacher should be per- 
fectly frank and sympathetic, pointing out the 
limitations of reason and supplying out of 
a wider knowledge reasons hitherto unper- 
ceived by the young doubter. Show the rea- 
sonableness of the Christian doctrine and 
system, and meet doubt with positive certain- 
ty. "And we know that the Son of God is 
come, and hath given us an understanding, 
that we may know Him that is true." The 
example of a clear, victorious, religious life 
is the best argument against doubt. 

Storm and Stress 

Doctor Haslett gives as his opinion that 
doubting is more common to males, dur- 
ing adolescence, and mental ferment and anx- 



86 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

iety to females. This emotional experience 
of anxiety and strain is an upheaval which 
is quite the rule. "It takes different forms: 
a sense of sin, sense of imperfection, fear of 
death, brooding depression, morbid intro- 
spection, distress over doubts, efforts to con- 
trol passion, and friction against surround- 
ings." This storm and stress is explained 
by Starbuck as due to the "functioning of 
new powers, which have no specific outlet 
and are driven to force for themselves an 
expression in one way or another. If there 
is no channel for the free expression of this 
new energy, it wastes itself and is recognized 
by distress and anxiety, groping after some- 
thing, and brooding self-condemnation." 

New Awakenings 

In this age there is the social awaken- 
ing. The youth awakes to the impor- 
tance of neatness in dress. His toilet is 
made with scrupulous care. He cares now 
how others regard him. His manners tend 
to improve. Right conduct makes a new ap- 
peal to him, and he abandons many of the 
heartless and unrighteous actions of the pre- 
vious period. He awakens also to a con- 



THE SENIOR AGE 



87 



cern as to the choice of a life work. Wise 
must be the teacher if he rises to the oppor- 
tunity at this point in giving information, 
inspiration, and counsel. 

Conversion 

This period is generally attended with 
definite religious awakenings. Statistics 
show that more persons are converted be- 
tween the ages of fourteen and nineteen than 
at any other period. Most students of this 
subject have found that the maximum num- 
ber for any one year of life occurs during 
the age of sixteen. From answers furnished 
by members of the Free Methodist church, 
both laity and clergy, male and female, rep- 
resenting all sections of the United States, 
the following results were discovered: 



Table of Conversions 



00 

< 


5 

1 


6 

2 


7 

1 


8 
4 


9 

8 


10 
9 


11 

6 


12 

7 


13 
11 


14 

IT 


15 
12 


16 
23 


17 

25 


18 
25 


19 
33 


20 
22 


no 
0) 
be 
<4 


21 
12 


22 
20 


23 
15 


24 
5 


26 

8 


26 
7 


27 
8 


28 
12 


29 
5 


30 
12 


31 

7 


32 
4 


33 

4 


34 
4 


35 
7 



88 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Summary of above: 



Ages under 12 inclusive 


31 


Ages under 10 inclusive 


16 


12 to 15 


54 


" 11 to 20 " 


136 


16 to 20 


128 


" 21 to 30 


160 


21 to 25 


60 


" 31 to 40 


34 


" 26 to 30 


44 






" 31 to 35 


26 







This table shows the number occurring at 
each year of life from the fifth to the thirty- 
fifth in a total of 343 cases. 

Observations from Table 

It will be noticed from the above table 
that the age at which the largest number of 
conversions, as reported by members of the 
Free Methodist church, is nineteen. It ap- 
pears, also, that the curve of conversions 
rises at ten, then falls to rise again at 
fourteen, falls again to culminate at nine- 
teen. This is followed by a period of 
depression and rises once more at twenty- 
eight and thirty. While the table shows 
the most conversions at nineteen, many 
occur during the three years preceding. The 
results in the main correspond with those 
of other investigators. Hazlett has tab 
ulated results from seven students of this 



THE SENIOR AGE 89 

subject. Three show the crest of the conver- 
sion curve to be at sixteen, two at seventeen 
and two at eighteen. Hazlett's table of re- 
sults summarizes as follows: 

Grand total conversions 6,641 

Ages 12 to 20, inclusive 5,054 

Ages 12 to 15, inclusive 1,871 

Ages 16 to 20, inclusive 3,183 

God's Time 

There is no doubt that the physical and 
mental changes and awakenings during this 
stage favor spiritual awakening and make 
it the golden age of conversion. The develop- 
ment of intellectual energy, new will power, 
stronger sentiments of love and altruism, 
greater response to ideals of life, unsatisfied 
longings, and all the varied manifestations 
of the period of storm and stress conduce to 
bring the young man and young woman to a 
conscious personal acceptance of Jesus 
Christ. It is most fortunate if one has been 
converted prior to this critical time. If not, 
every effort should be made in the home, Sun- 
day-school, and church service to bring him 
into the kingdom of God before the period of 
middle adolescence passes by. When it has 



90 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

passed, for the great majority, Jesus of Naz- 
areth has forever passed by. 

The Opportunities of the Teacher 

The special characteristics of this stage 
furnish unusual opportunities to the teacher. 
Among these is the opportunity to help tne 
pupil to establish broad interests. The tre- 
mendous energy of the mind seeks an outlet, 
and the nature and direction of the outlet 
will depend upon the teacher. Love of na- 
ture, interest in literature, science, and art 
can be fostered at this time as at no other, 
making all the difference between the richer 
life and the narrow one. 

The teacher may strengthen the founda- 
tions of faith. "The questioning of this 
period makes it possible to ground belief in 
the verities of the Christian religion. Faith 
need not be blind. God gives us a reasonable 
basis for all He asks us to accept. The care- 
ful study of facts which are the starting- 
point of faith will help the doubting soul to 
trust beyond the power of sight and enable 
him to give a reason for the faith that is 
in him." 

The teacher may aid also in choice of life- 



THE SENIOR AGE 91 

work. This subject fills the pupil's mind. 
It lures him on with bright hopes and tempt- 
ing prospects and again fills him with fore- 
boding and anxiety. He is face to face with 
a serious problem. The teacher who under- 
stands the aptitudes of his pupils may, by 
wise counsel and loving sympathy, stimulate 
them to aspire to high service. They listen 
as at no other time to the call to the minis- 
try, to the mission field, to the work of re- 
form, and other vocations which involve the 
subordination of selfish ambition to the will 
of God and the welfare of humanity. 

Young People's Classes 

One of the greater Sunday-school problems 
is to hold the young people. The methods 
which succeed in the lower departments do 
not succeed with the senior classes. The Sun- 
day-school must actually meet their peculiar 
needs and capacities. It must give them 
something which they regard as worth while. 
They are in the intellectual stage, and usual- 
ly in the high school. They come into con- 
tact with experienced teachers and modern 
methods of instruction. The Sunday-school 
must find teachers somewhat in mental cor- 



92 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

respondence with the intellectual life of the 
senior age, teachers whose accurate knowl- 
edge of Scriptural truth commands respect. A 
teacher for young people will need not less 
spirituality and unction than in the lower 
grades, but more precise scholarship and 
painstaking preparation. 

In the conduct of young people's classes a 
teacher will appeal more to the reason than 
to authority and tradition. "Bring forth 
your strong reasons, saith the King of Jacob." 
Indulge the tendency to reason. Show that 
the devotement of the self in holy sacrifice 
to God is a "reasonable service;" that athe- 
ism and unbelief in a divine revelation is 
against reason, and that true faith has a 
rational basis. Only truth that is accepted 
as one's own can produce conviction and re- 
sult in voluntary choice of right. 

The young people's classes must have a 
definite end in view in their study. Special 
topics such as, "The Life of Paul," "The Life 
of Christ," "The Apostolic Age of the 
Church," "The Ephesian Letter," suggest 
definite and critical study. 

A teacher of young people will continually 
present Christ as their supreme need, and 



THE SENIOR AGE 93 

press immediate acceptance. He will do this 
tactfully, but he will remember the great va- 
cancy that is realized in the life of adoles- 
cents, and not once but often make it plain 
that naught can fill this void save Jesus the 
Christ. He will keep in mind also how 
watchful and critical youth is, and as an ex- 
ample will walk circumspectly in robes of 
spotless white. 



VIII. 

THE OLDER ADULTS. 

All persons over the age of nineteen con- 
stitute the adult department. The period 
from nineteen to twenty-five is the stage of 
later adolescence. 

Later Adolescence 

Many of the characteristics present in 
the preceding stage are apparent during this 
time. There are, however, indications of 
greater maturity of the intellectual powers, 
manifested in enlarged conceptions of self- 
hood and of the relations of the individual 
to the widening world. This is for many per- 
sons the creative stage. The fertility of the 
intellect is evident from the fact that some 
of the best and most original contributors to 
philosophy have been made during these 
years. With the increase of intellectual 
vigor, there appear greater development and 

94 



THE OLDER ADULTS 95 

strength of character. Standards of conduct 
are now broader, truer and more practical. 
The superior work and ability of others are 
estimated at their true value. Indiscrim- 
inate companionship in a group is succeeded 
by more carefully selected friends. 

Another characteristic of this period is 
vigor of will. This shows itself in greater 
concentration and sustained effort in the ac- 
complishment of worthy ends. This increase 
of intellectual and volitional power suggests 
the method of approach in dealing with per- 
sons of this class. The appeal should be to 
their manhood and womanhood. The call to 
task involving thought, and energy, even sac- 
rifice, will meet with readier response. The 
mission of the Sunday-school to this class 
should be a constant summons to self-sacri- 
ficing endeavor, to those larger activities 
which demand the utmost expenditure of 
mental and moral strength. The class is the 
place not only for the discovery and state- 
ment of spiritual truth, but also for the ap- 
plication of truth to the various phases of 
political and social questions so that from 
the Sunday-school will go forth young men 
to practical Christian effort and eminent 



96 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

leadership in the field of loeal or more gen- 
eral reform. 

The Older Adults 

This department includes all over the age 
of twenty-five. It is an important division 
of the Sunday-school. If the regular attend- 
ance of the fathers and mothers can be se- 
cured, it will be much easier to get the chil- 
dren. The presence of the adults will also 
dignify the Sunday-school in the eyes of the 
young people. There should be then men's 
classses and women's classes in which are 
found the entire adult membership of the 
church. 

"Doctrine 

This age brings the fulness of mental 
vigor. It delights in full discussion and fine 
discrimination. Religion is viewed in its 
theological aspects, and creeds and doc- 
trines come iu for statement and criticism. 

Reflection 

As young people enjoy the pleasures of im- 
agination, older people delight in the pleas- 
ures of memory. The relation of personal 



THE OLDER ADULTS 97 

experience is one of the best sources of man- 
hood's joy. 

Specialization 

The adult has chosen his vocation. The 
direction of his life interests has been deter- 
mined. As development proceeds, life be- 
comes more and more specialized, and does 
not easily depart from established grooves. 
Professor James says that no new ideas out- 
side of his particular vocation come to be 
one's permanent possession after twenty- 
five. Action hardens into habit and charac- 
ter takes on set and permanence. 

Spiritual Appetite 

The battle of life is now on. The time of 
achievement is here. Participation in the 
world's work makes large draughts on the 
spiritual force. Disappointments, failures, 
losses, and struggles press and weary. These 
conditions create real soul hunger, a longing 
for a deeper revelation of God, and a closer 
walk with Him. 

Service 

"As childhood's task is absorption, and 
the task of youth adjustment, so the task of 



98 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

maturity is service. That which has been 
taken in must be given out again, enriched 
and enlarged by its stay in the soul. All the 
factors necessary for service are now ready. 
Experience and study have supplied some- 
thing to give, mental discipline and unim- 
paired physical strength supply the power 
for service, the broad outlook the need and 
place of service, and the soul's awakening to- 
ward God and his neighbor have supplied 
the motives for service" (Lamoreaux). 

In the Sunday-school 

The adults require competent teachers, 
men and women of breadth of mind, force 
of character, depth of spirituality, and per- 
sonal magnetism. A leading man in the 
community, the employer of men, strong and 
aggressive, is desirable for the men's classes. 
The classes may profitably organize for sys- 
tematic work. They will do better work in 
separate rooms, where general discussion is 
possible without embarrassment. 

If the teacher rises to his opportunity 
the men and women will come to Sunday- 
school and find it a place where they receive 
real spiritual nourishment; where they see 



THE OLDER ADULTS 99 

new visions of truth, clear, illuminating, In- 
spiring; where they feel the stimulus of mind 
reacting upon mind, heart beating with 
heart; where they get a view of the progress 
of God's kingdom throughout the world with 
resulting inspiration to faith and courage; 
where they find elevating, refining, broaden- 
ing influences after a week of toil, possibly 
in forbidding circumstances and under 
crushing burdens; and where God speaks 
through His Word with new sweetness and 
power, or with new commissions to special 
service in His great harvest-field, 



IX. 

THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES. 

Education and Unfolding 

Childhood is only another name for weak- 
ness and immaturity. The young child is but 
an undeveloped possibility. In body and in 
soul he is simply a promise. But at length 
weakness is turned to strength, the possibil- 
ity becomes an actuality, and the promise 
finds wonderful fulfilment in physical 
strength and grace, and in mental ability 
and spiritual power. Every life is an un- 
folding life. Nothing becomes explicit which 
was not implicit. The embryonic germ ex- 
pands and grows, and body and soul experi- 
ence a gradual but none the less marvelous 
transformation. 

Knowledge a Condition of Development 

The road from childhood to manhood 
passes through a most alluring country. The 

100 



THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES 101 

child finds himself continually drawn out 
by the objects along the way. He instinct- 
ively makes the acquaintance of things about 
him, and later appropriates, as he is encour- 
aged, the thoughts and occupations of his 
older companions in travel. His mind reacts 
upon its environment, and in so doing ac- 
quires knowledge and experience. The ac- 
quisition of knowledge is a necessary condi- 
tion of the development of the mind and 
soul. Knowledge is the material upon which 
the mind feeds. Without it there is no men- 
tal activity, and without mental activity 
there can be no will, no habit, and no char- 
acter. 

Physiology and Psychology 

If we desire to guide the child in the de- 
velopment of his body, we study the opera- 
tions of the body and the laws of bodily 
growth. Physiology, anatomy and hygiene 
deal with this information. To guide the 
child in the development of his mind, we must 
know something about the operations of the 
mind. Psychology deals with this informa- 
tion. The science of psychology finds a sci- 
entific basis for the great art of teaching. 



102 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Psychology the Science of the Mind 

The mind operates according to natural 
laws which constitute the subject matter of 
psychology. It is the "science which de- 
scribes, classifies and explains our mental 
operations." If we look within ourselves we 
find these operations going on. We discover 
a succession of ideas, images, pains, pleas- 
ures, acts of memory, imagination, and will., 
These experiences are activities and states 
of the mind. No one has ever discovered 
what the substance of the mind is, or its 
relation to the body in which it resides. It 
is believed to be immaterial and spiritual, 
capable of existing separate and apart from 
the body. It is a form of life clothed with 
all the mystery which surrounds other forms 
of life. While we do not know what the 
mind is, we can know its activities and 
states, and the conditions under which they 
arise. 

The Mind a Unit 

While the states of mind are various and 
changeable, the mind itself is a unity. It 
has its existence, not £?part from these sep- 
arate mental states, but in them. It is cap 



THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES 103 

able of three distinct classes of activity, 
called knowing, feeling, and willing. This 
does not imply that the mind is composed of 
separate parts, organs, or functions, but that 
the mind exercises itself now in knowing, 
again in feeling, and again in willing. Or, to 
speak more accurately, while one of these ac- 
tivities may at any one time predominate, 
our conscious experience is a blending of 
these activities into complex states. When 
we are in a state of terror, emotion is pre- 
dominant; in solving a problem, intellect is 
predominant. The mind perfectly developed 
in all three activities is rare. Most men are 
in temperament either emotional, intellectual 
or strong willed. The feeling activity in a 
child is preeminent. Intellect and will are 
weak and undeveloped. 

Activities Interdependent 

While these activities are distinct, they are 
not independent. We love our country (feel- 
ing) ; we inform ourselves regarding her per- 
ils (knowing) ; and offer our services in her 
defense (willing). The class hears of the 
sad condition of orphan children in India 
(knowing) ; and they feel an interest in them 



104 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

(feeling) ; and proceed to take and send a 
contribution toward their support (willing). 
One condition of mind passes into another; 
and further, it can be shown that one ac- 
tivity always implies the other two. 

The Soul 

The terms mind and soul are often used 
interchangeably. It may be better, however, 
to think of the soul as the self in the exer- 
cise of its various activities, and to restrict 
the term mind to the self in the exercise of 
its knowing power. The work of a teacher 
is not merely the improvement of the minds 
of the pupils, but the enrichment of their 
souls. To teach truly is not only to cause 
to know, but also to cause to feel and to act. 
Character is a condition of the soul. The end 
of teaching is character. Character involves 
not only accurate thinking, but also right 
feeling and energetic willing. Effective teach- 
ing moves the heart and soul, and always re- 
sults in right actions. 

The Senses 

"Knowledge arises in the soul through the 
senses." The special senses arranged in the 



THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES 105 

order of their value for knowledge are seeing, 
hearing, touch, taste and smell. These var- 
ious sense organs are remarkable contrive 
ances, sensitive to energy under its different 
manifestations. Objects coming within range 
of the sense organs produce in them a ner- 
vous stimulation which is communicated 
along the nerves to the brain. This nervous 
excitement makes an impression upon the 
brain which in some mysterious manner calls 
forth a response in the mind. This response 
or reaction is termed a sensation and is the 
simplest element or experience of mental 
life. 

Sensations and Percepts 

The nervous mechanism is a remarkable 
system of communication between the out- 
side world and the mind. Reports from the 
outside world are going in night and day. 
These reports or impressions reaching the 
brain are not only reacted upon but also in- 
terpreted. The mind reads meaning into the 
sensation and refers it outward to some ob- 
ject. This interpretation by the mind of 
sense impressions is called perception, and 
the products of this act are called percepts. 



106 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

We notice, therefore, that sensation is a pas- 
sive state, while perception is largely an ac- 
tive one. Sensation supplies materials in the 
form of feelings; perception works up these 
materials into an orderly world. Every indi- 
vidual in an important sense creates his own 
world by the way he interprets and refers 
his sensations. He creates not only his ex- 
ternal world of objects, but his intellectual 
and moral world as well. It is the rare 
privilege of the teacher to assist the pupil to 
interpret his sensations, and so help him to 
create the right kind of world. The world 
must be made of the materials which enter 
in through sensation and perception. Kight- 
ly to guard in sensation and to guide in per- 
ception should be the aspiration of every 
teacher, that his pupils may create a world 
for themselves which will yield the richest 
satisfaction for this life and the life to come. 

Importance of the Senses 

Our world then, whatever it may be, is 
constituted of organized sensations. They 
are the ultimate facts of mental life. They 
are the foundation stones in the structure of 
knowledge, or rather the materials out of 



THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES 107 

which it is built. The training of the senses, 
therefore, assumes a real importance. If 
sensations are scanty, vague and indefinite, 
the structure of knowledge will be vague, 
without beauty or order. It has bean said 
that "there is nothing in the mind that is 
not first in the senses." And certainly accu- 
rate memory, vivid imagination, clear think- 
ing, are all conditioned upon rich sensations 
and clear perceptions. 

The mental life of children is largely an 
accumulation of materials. They are con- 
cerned with building up an objective world 
for themselves. Their normal mental activ- 
ity is in the region of sensation and percep- 
tion. The first work of the teacher of young 
children is the proper training of the senses. 
This training develops the powers of observa- 
tion and brings a richer and clearer body of 
materials to furnish the mind and beautify 
the soul. 

The Training of the Senses 

Senses are trained by coming into contact 
with objects. A description of nature, how- 
ever eloquent, will make small impression 



108 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

upon the child's mind. Memorizing dead 
facts regarding things and places will 
awaken no vitalizing sensations. But in th<* 
companionship of a true teacher and under 
his guidance, to look upon the imagery of 
cloud and the splendor of the sunset, to wan- 
der through field and forest and listen to the 
symphony of myriad-voiced nature, to smell 
the woodland, and feel and handle and touch, 
is to train the senses to observe and identify, 
and make them accurate and delicate for any 
demand of practical life or general culture. 
In like manner the parable of the sower or 
the soils could be taught in some planted 
field, the children handling some seed and 
sowing it broadcast; the ark of the covenant 
could be taught from a model or drawing in 
right proportions; and the altar of incense 
could be made real and suggestive with a few 
coals and a bit of spice or aromatic gum. 
Eeach "Man-soul" through as many of the 
five gates as possible. Exercise the senses 
by directing the spontaneous energy, and the 
inevitable result will be quickened senses, 
and clear ideas, which will be the enduring 
possession of the mind and heart. 



THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES 109 

Consciousness 

Out of the simple facts of mental life de- 
velop those more complex. Sensations give 
rise to perceptions; perceptions, ideas, acts 
of memory, imagination and will. The mind 
not only has these experiences but is con- 
scious of itself in these activities and states. 
The soul thus considered is called conscious- 
ness, and its experiences states of conscious- 
ness. 

Connection Between Consciousness and 
the Body 

The mutual dependence of mind and body 
is very apparent. A blow upon the head 
produces unconsciousness, and stimulants, 
affecting the nervous system of the body, 
powerfully affect the mind. On the other 
hand, mental states affect the body. Fear 
will paralyze the muscular action of the 
heart and limbs. The psysiological connec- 
tion between the mind and the body is the 
nervous system, including the brain, spinal 
cord and sensory and motor mechanism. 
Just how successive fields of consciousness 
are related to brain states, how a state of con- 
sciousness accompanies an irritation of the 



110 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

nervous tissue, how physical, physiological, 
and chemical excitement of sense organs can 
produce now pleasure, now an image, now 
will, is an undiscovered secret, but we know 
that such connection exists and that the body 
is not only the bond of connection between 
the mind and the outside world, but also a 
determining factor in the exercise of the 
mind. 

The Physical Basis 

It is important for the teacher to know 
that a vigorous, well-nourished brain is a nec- 
essary condition for the best intellectual ac- 
tivity, the highest feelings and the most en- 
ergetic action. Weakness of body frequently 
explains poor memory, emotional apathy and 
feeble purpose. Great allowance must be 
made for moral weakness on the part of chil- 
dren continually tired and underfed. The 
improvement of their physical condition is 
sometimes the most helpful stimulus to right 
behavior. The connection betwen mind and 
body is so intimate that the body ought to 
be cultivated and trained to its highest ef- 
ficiency, not indeed for its own sake, but for 



THE MIND AND ITS ACTIVITIES 111 

the sake of its connections with the soul, 
whose helpful minister it should ever be. 

Abuse of the Body 

This intimate relation is seen in the results 
of the abuse of the body. The effects of to- 
bacco upon the mind are serious. High au- 
thority after a thorough examination of the 
students of Yale College declares that "to- 
bacco inhibits the physical growth and causes 
a loss of mental power to those addicted to its 
use." The cigarette is a notorious evil. Doc- 
tor Rowe is quoted that "it tends to physical 
nervousness and to stupidity," and that boys 
addicted to its use cannot compete in school 
with non-smokers. The use of alcohol also 
retards brain action and eventually destroys 
the finer sensibilities and the mental and mor- 
al nature. The teacher of boys, in the inter- 
est of high thinking and heart culture, should 
impress them that their body is entitled to 
care, cultivation, and the highest respect, and 
should enforce by precept and example the 
great command, "Keep thyself pure." 



X. 

ATTENTION. 

Nature of Attention 

The materials of our conscious life flow in 
from the outside world. Without interrup- 
tion they sweep over the nerves to the central 
office of the brain. Consciousness, however, 
is like a "busy man who can admit into his 
inner office only a very few from the throng 
of seekers without." While impressions are 
received from eye and ear and their sister 
senses, consciousness selects some and rejects 
others. This selective power of the mind is 
attention. While travelling I am absorbed 
in an interesting book. Presently I hear the 
rumble of the train; I smell the car smoke; 
I perceive that the car is uncomfortably 
warm, and I feel again the sorrow of separa- 
tion from friends. The sound, the odor, the 
high temperature, the feeling — all were pres- 
ent while I was reading, but I perceived them 

112 



ATTENTION 113 

not until the focus of consciousness shifted 
from my book to my surroundings. This 
condition of consciousness in which its en- 
ergy is focused upon one object or group of 
objects is called attention. 

Involuntary Attention 

If I continue my journey in the train in 
perfect mental relaxation I find the focus of 
consciousness constantly shifting. The slam 
of the door, the appearance of the conductor, 
the call of the porter, the slackening speed, 
the exit of passengers, the sight of the sta- 
tion, the entrance of the inevitable old lady 
with basket, bundle, and bird-cage — all suc- 
cessively hold the focus of mind by reason of 
a natural attraction and without any act or 
effort of will. Such a condition of the mind 
is known as involuntary attention. The mind 
is relatively passive, the focal power is di- 
rected by the mere intensity of the stimulus, 
and the will is largely inoperative. 

Voluntary Attention 

At length I produce my Bible and proceed 
to commit to memory a Psalm. All sorts of 
sights and sounds struggle for recognition, 



114 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

but resolutely I put them all aside until I 
can repeat my Psalm. This concentration 
of consciousness under the direction of the 
will is voluntary attention. The stimulus is 
internal, supplied from past experience, and 
excites the mind to effort by virtue of its as- 
sociations. How can the will influence the 
mind in arousing attention? It would seem 
that the will determines the subject upon 
which the mind shall focus. If, however, 
there is any clear, settled concentration, the 
subject must develop some interest. "The 
will introduces the mind and object; it can- 
not force an attachment between them." The 
student may by act of will focus his mind 
upon his lesson, but once brought together, 
if the lesson develops no interest, no amount 
of willing can continue upon it that intensi- 
fied form of consciousness which we call at- 
tention. 

Importance of Attention 

Attention enters into all our mental oper- 
ations. Attention is involved in clear per- 
ception, vivid imagination, distinct feelings 
and deliberate choice. It is an essential con- 
dition of all knowledge and the varied abili- 



ATTENTION 115 

ty of different persons in acquiring knowl- 
edge is usually a difference in their power or 
habit of attention. 

The Attention of Childhood 

The attention of the child is involuntary. 
The will is not in control. He is at the mercy 
of external sights and sounds. As Pro- 
fessor Pattee well says, "Every butterfly 
sailing across the field of vision attracts 
him; every loud noise, every new appeal 
to any of his senses, puts all earlier, 
sensations out of the field of con- 
sciousness." These distractions and com- 
petitors for the child's attention are mostly 
from without. Adults carry many distrac- 
tions within. But in the case of children the 
teacher must deal largely with surroundings. 
He must remove distractions; insist upon or- 
der. 

He secures attention by introducing some- 
thing which makes a vigorous appeal to the 
eye, such as colored pictures, drawings or 
models ; by a variation of tone, or by present- 
ing a subject which has pleasurable or pain- 
ful associations. 



116 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Attention and Interest 

We have seen that while the will can bring 
the soul and an object together, unless the 
soul discovers some interest there is no atten- 
tion. Attention then depends upon interest. 
Interest is the invariable medium of atten- 
tion. What is of the greatest interest will 
command the strictest attention. A teacher 
can command his pupils' attention only as he 
can stimulate their interest. A superintend- 
ent stood before the school to review the les- 
son of the day. He produced two apples, one 
large and fair and the other smaller and less 
attractive, and placed them upon the table. 
Every eye was upon him. "Which apple, 
children, do you prefer?" "The big one," 
unanimously shouted the younger classes of 
the school. "Children," said the superintend- 
ent, "things are not always what they seem. 
Appearances are frequently deceptive!" And 
putting his hand upon the apple, large and 
beautiful in appearance, which he had pre- 
viously hollowed out into a mere shell, he 
easily crushed it to the table. Surprise and 
disappointment were visible upon every face, 
and through excited interest and consequent 
large-eyed attention, the lesson was never for- 



ATTENTION 117 

gotten of the fair exterior and the hollow 
heart. 

Interest and Adaptation 

The great secret of interest is adaptation. 
The subject must bear a close relation to the 
pupils' doing and thinking. The teacher, to 
be interesting, must know the contents of the 
pupils' minds, their stock of ideas and capaci- 
ties. What he says and does must touch the 
pupil where he is. For most children the 
Sunday-school has been too theological, too 
abstract, too adult. We must reach down to 
the children before they can reach up to us. 
Unless we actually reach them, we will not 
stimulate a feeling of interest. Without in- 
terest there can be no attention. Without at- 
tention no lesson of truth, no putting forth 
of life, no power of purpose, no strength of 
character. 

Hon? to Excite Interest 

The soul as well as the body is a living or- 
ganism. It has in it those forces and feel- 
ings which are essential to its development. 
There is a hunger of the soul as well as a 
hunger of the body. This feeling of soul-hun- 



118 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ger is interest. Just as the sight of tempt- 
ing food or the odor of a savory dish excites 
the appetite, so the skilful presentation of 
suitable materials will stimulate the mental 
appetite. This feeling of hunger, or appetite, 
is an attitude of the soul which undoubtedly 
characterizes every individual. The teacher 
can count on its presence in every boy and 
girl, and should make it his business to dis- 
cover what subjects excite this feeling, or in 
other words, where his interests lie. Study 
carefully the individuals of your class and 
you will find that each one, though shy and 
backward, will manifest this feeling of satis- 
faction when that su'bject is presented which 
is appropriate to his powers of mastication 
and assimilation. 

To intelligently appeal to the pupil and 
excite his interest the subject must show some 
point of connection with something in the 
pupil's personal experience. It should offer 
some familiar features. The totally new 
makes no impression, finds no entrance. We 
are always eager to hear some allusion to 
our own state, or town, occupation, or favor- 
ite author. On the other hand, what is too 
familiar and simple cannot create interest. 



ATTENTION ' 119 

The mind enjoys the prospect of advancing 
knowledge. The old is necessary for devel- 
opment, the new for growth. Carefully grad- 
ed instruction, suited to the pupil's age and 
condition of life will never fail to interest. 
If the lessons are so developed that the pu- 
pils are constantly challenged to successful 
effort, and the truth unfolded is a succession 
of surprises, the lesson will be a delight for 
teacher and learner. The mind enjoys exer- 
cise and achievement. Interest is manifest- 
ed as long as there is actual accomplishment. 

Interest and Accomplishment 

Interest is not merely to amuse. It is to 
assist the pupil in the gratification of a pow- 
erful instinct, the instinct of curiosity. Curi- 
osity is another name for soul appetite, the 
strong desire to know, to feel, to act. The 
satisfaction of this desire is attended by a 
pleasurable feeling. It is experienced in con- 
nection with all the various forms of mental 
activity. There is actual pleasure in seeing, 
imagining, remembering and willing. It is 
peculiarly present in the consciousness of 
overcoming difficulties, solving hard prob- 
lems and discovering hidden truth. This, 



120 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

once felt, will constitute fresh starting-points 
of interest. A teacher who does not cause in 
the minds of the pupils any mental activity; 
who does not direct them to the discovery of 
new truth, or to the accomplishment of some 
worthy intellectual or moral attainment, can 
never succeed. The class hour should be the 
teacher's opportunity for a trumpet call to 
achievement. If he knows how to get the 
class to work, the harder the better, he will 
never fail to have interest and attention. 

Interest and Responsibility 

The relation of responsibility to interest is 
well known. A man who had little interest 
in his lodge was elected High and Mighty Po- 
tentate of the Eastern Door. Other consid- 
erations failed to secure his attendance, but 
when appointed to walk up and down in a 
closet-like room carrying a drawn sword and 
to peep out of a small hole in the door and 
challenge all who would enter, he was pres- 
ent at every meeting. The delegation of suit- 
able responsibilities to the various members 
of the Sunday-school class will quicken inter- 
est and secure cooperation when other meth- 
ods fail. 



ATTENTION 121 



An Illustration 



One vacation a father took his son of eight 
years to a well known Chautauqua. The 
daily program furnished a variety of enter- 
tainment and instruction. One day a chil- 
dren's Bible class was announced to meet 
daily for a week. At the appointed hour the 
father urged the boy to go. The boy demur- 
red. He said that he had not come to attend 
Sunday-school. The shady grove, the lake 
with its bathing and boats were strong coun- 
ter attractions. But the father insisted, and 
the boy with leaden feet and tearful eyes 
made his way to the pavilion. The 
leader understood both the Bible and 
boys. He furnished each one with a 
Bible, a sheet of paper and a pencil, 
and for an hour there was such a combi- 
nation of wise questioning, skilful illus 
tration, judicious drill and helpful sug- 
gestions concerning the use of their text- 
book and the recording of results that the 
story of Gideon and his men was thor- 
oughly mastered. He explained the 
subject for the next day, gave printed 
questions to be filled out in part in home 
study, and presented each with a kodak 



122 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

picture of Gideon's spring taken by a friend. 
It was over all too soon, and the boy, all 
enthusiastic over the Bible study, said on 
the way back to the cottage, "I did not 
know it would be like that; I want to go 
every time." And the father, thinking of 
the sins committed in the name of teaching 
everywhere, and the pedagogical sinners who 
stifle the inborn craving for knowledge of 
God and His Word with methods devitaliz- 
ing and inhumane, breathed upward a fer- 
vent prayer, "Father, forgive us; we know 
not what we do." 

! 
Natural and Artificial Interest 

The interest that arises in the contempla- 
tion of the thing that feeds the mind and en- 
riches the soul is natural interest. It may 
with children be an object, or with adults an 
idea or subject that has various connections. 
This sort of interest is legitimate and whole- 
some. Artificial interest is that aroused by 
indirect means, such as prizes and rewards, 
which are arbitrarily connected with the 
things in which interest is desired. Rewards 
in which all share may be proper. To secure 
the reward the pupil may seek information 



ATTENTION 123 

about the subject, and thus may develop a 
perfectly healthy and natural interest. At 
best, however, such devices are of doubtful 
value. They frequently lead to unseemly ri- 
valry, stimulate the baser feelings and make 
more difficult natural interest. The better 
teacher resorts to artificial interest rarely if 
at all. The real satisfaction of the hunger of 
the soul is its own best reward and incentive 
to effort. 

Sympathetic Interest 

Interest, as we have seen, is feeling. Feel- 
ing is contagious. Cheerfulness expressed 
tends to make others cheerful. The enthusi- 
asm of the teacher is communicated to the 
class. Genuine interest always spreads. This 
interest of the teacher must be real. Any 
feigning of interest is dishonest, and will de- 
ceive no one long. The interest in the class 
can rise no higher than that of the teacher. 
He can gain this enthusiastic interest by a 
fresh knowledge of his subject, and by a con- 
viction of the importance and dignity of the 
work. Attention naturally follows when en- 
thusiastic interest overflows into the souls of 
others, 



124 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Expectant Attention 

This is a reaching forward of the mind to 
the coming event. It is an attitude of watch- 
ing for more. Continuous voluntary atten- 
tion depends upon this feeling of expectancy. 
This is secured by a gradual unfolding of the 
lesson so that each step points the way for 
the next, or by various methods which fur- 
nish a succession of pleasant surprises. The 
subject in hand will drift every few moments 
out of the focus of consciousness. The 
teacher must bring it back again and again, 
by illustration, discussion, quotation, and 
drill. While attention can be maintained 
constant only a few seconds, "the relations 
into which a subject may come are prac- 
tically infinite. The worlds of sense per- 
ception, feeling, art, memory, history, im- 
agination, poetry, thought, and science — all 
these may be drawn upon to strengthen a 
many sided appeal to attention." 

It has been said that to hear without listen- 
ing, to see without looking, to memorize with- 
out grasping the relation, to know without 
understanding, are the original pedagogical 
sins; but, as Professor Runkle has pointed 
out, they are the sins of the teacher and not 



ATTENTION 125 

of the pupil. If he cannot get the pupils' 
attention it is because he is not worth their 
attention. He has nothing that interests 
them more than their own little interests. 
"He has not found the point of contact be- 
tween his truth, his personality, and those 
of the child or youth." The teacher should 
be such a. personality by a knowledge and 
exemplification of the truth that he compels 
attention through an ever enkindling interest. 



XL 
MEMORY. 

Percepts and Images 

As I close my eyes there comes before my 
mental vision percepts of objects familiar 
to me in boyhood days. Several years have 
passed since I actually saw them, but pic- 
tures of the old home, with the great over- 
spreading elm, the barn and orchard near-by, 
the little white schoolhouse down the road, 
and the woods and hills farther on, all re- 
vive before me, and I live again in the world 
of yesterday. Soon these scenes fade away 
and other views — the old church, the ceme- 
tery, and portraits of old friends — take their 
place in the picture-gallery of the soul. When 
we really look at an object we have a precept. 
When the object is removed we have an im- 
age or picture of the object. Sully defines 
image as the form in which the percept ap- 
pears after the removal of the object. The 

126 



MEMORY 127 

image is not as vivid and definite as the per- 
cept and is much more fleeting. 

Definition of "Memory 

Every clear percept has its image 
somewhere in the mind. "But these images 
are not always in the focus of conscious- 
ness, not always the things of attention, not 
always the objects of interest. They elude 
consciousness and others take their places. 
They perhaps do not pass wholly out of con- 
sciousness, but they are no longer the things 
of attention. But they may be recalled and 
again be made the things of attention. The 
power by which the soul retains and recalls 
its past experiences and makes them again 
the things of attention is memory ." 

Importance of "Memory 

While perception is the great source of 
knowledge, perception is always in the pres- 
ent. To live constantly in the present in- 
stant would be to live by impulse and in- 
stinct. We would be helpless and worthless 
creatures of the moment. But the human mind 
has been given the power to reach both 
ways from this present moment — backward 



128 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

by the memory into a broad expanse of 
time which we call the past, and forward 
through the imagination almost without 
limit into what we name the future. How 
one lives in the present and how he plans 
to live in the future depends almost alto- 
gether on his memory of the past. By this 
wonderful power of the mind the teacher 
can take important truths and principles 
and make them a part of this controlling 
past. 

Retention 

Memory has been defined as the activity 
of the mind in retaining and reviving its 
percepts or sense impressions. It is a revi- 
val of a past experience after it has once 
dropped from consciousness. The mind is 
larger than consciousness. Psychologists 
speak of sub-consciousness as a region of the 
mind into which our images or ideas sink and 
are retained. Just how they are retained, 
we do not know, but they leave such traces 
of themselves in the ever-changing organiza- 
tion of the mind that when an element 
of our previous experience comes into 
consciousness we recognize it. Some think 



MEMORY 129 

that every experience is retained. Others 
believe that many disappear forever. But 
much more than we think is permanently 
hidden deep in the recesses of the mind 
and only needs the appropriate association 
or stimulus to bring it forth. As a matter 
of fact, long lost incidents occasionally re- 
vive in the mind with startling freshness and 
power, some to our dismay and others to our 
delight. 

Conditions of Retention 

"Ketention is conditioned by the length of 
time an impression or situation occupies the 
field of consciousness, the strength of vivid- 
ness of its appearance, the frequency of its 
presence, the simplicity of its occurrence, the 
degree of emotion with which it is experi- 
enced, the physiological conditions and the 
general habit of life." 

Recollection 

This is the process of reviving our past ex- 
periences, of bringing back to consciousness 
the ideas once there. Recollection involves 
conscious effort. An important factor in rec- 
ollection is a strong original impression. A 
distressing accident or destructive fire will 



130 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

impress us deeply and will be long remem- 
bered. Depth of impression depends upon 
two things, namely: 

1. Attention. Bright colors are recalled 
better than dull ones; distinct sounds 
than faint ones. Objects are recalled bet- 
ter than descriptions of objects; real situa- 
tions than imaginary ones. A vigorous con- 
dition of mind is a condition of strict atten- 
tion and hence of recollection. The attitude 
of the mind is important. Objects or ideas 
of absorbing interest hold fast the attention 
and make permanent impressions. Anything 
tihat gives pleasure in the act of perception 
is more easily recalled. Strong feelings of 
any kind create interest and affect attention. 
Sully says that "the events of early child- 
hood which are permanently retained com- 
monly show an accompaniment of strong 
feeling, such as wonder, delight, or awe." One 
reading was sufficient for a child to repeat 
sections of Revelation, whose wonder had 
been excited by the descriptions of strange 
beasts and unusual situations. If teachers 
can arouse a pleasurable interest in the study 
of truth the chances of its lasting retention 
are many-fold increased. 



MEMORY 131 

2. Repetition. The more frequently an 
impression is repeated the more enduring will 
be the image. The most of our mental images 
are of things which we have frequently seen, 
or of events which have repeatedly occurred. 
In emphasizing the importance of interest, 
we must not depreciate the value of drills 
and reviews. The books of the Bible, outlines 
and summaries must be learned by frequent 
repetition. But repetition is most successful 
when supplementary to interest. Reviews 
can be made interesting by taking up the sub- 
ject from different points of view. Concert 
drills are not without interest. The teach- 
er must be a constant drill-master. 

Association 

A second important factor in recollection 
is association. No idea or fact of knowledge 
can exist in the mind in isolation. It must 
exist in conjunction with other ideas. The 
presence of one in the mind calls up others 
connected with it. The photograph before me 
reminds me of the person whose likeness it 
is. The book on my table recalls the friend 
who gave it to me. They each in turn are as- 
sociated with various experiences and events. 



132 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

One thing calls up another. Select from the 
mental treasures an idea, and a hundred oth- 
er associated ideas will follow in close array. 
Reverie or day-dreaming reveals how ideas 
are associated in trains of thought. The va- 
rious kinds of association are: 

1. Association by Contiguity. I see a 
man and recall the place where I first met 
him, the post-office. The thought of Chat- 
tanooga brings up Lookout Mountain; New 
York the Brooklyn Bridge, Palestine the 
Dead Sea. Things that lie near each other 
are easily associated. Events that occur near 
together are connected. When one is recalled 
the other appears in consciousness. The law 
is stated, "Impressions which occur together 
or in immediate succession afterwards tend 
to revive or suggest one another." 

2. By Similarity. The thought of New 
York may suggest also London. The Dead 
Sea may recall Great Salt Lake, Palestine 
New Hampshire, the statesmanship of Glad- 
stone the statesmanship of Isaiah. Asso- 
ciation by similarity brings experiences to- 
gether which are far apart in ispace and 
time. Association by contiguity is more me- 
chanical than association by resemblance. 



MEMORY 133 

By the application of the latter principle 
classifications are made and general ideas are 
formed which are of great service in mental 
economy. Great groups of related incidents 
may be thus connected. The teacher out of 
a thorough preparation can establish these 
relations of similarity so that the great facts 
of Biblical history, literature, and experience 
may be not only in the mind, but may when 
bidden appear in consciousness and be at our 
service. 

3. By Contrast. An impression, object, 
or event generally suggests the image of 
its opposite. Light suggests darkness, weak- 
ness suggests strength. The reign of David 
is associated with the reign of Saul by the 
principle of contiguity; the character of Da- 
vid is associated with the character of Saul 
by the principle of contrast. We may point 
out that Moses was great in his ability to 
conceive and inaugurate, Joshua in his power 
to execute, that Isaiah found his sphere as a 
court preacher, Jonah as an itinerant evan- 
gelist. The boastful words of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, "Is not this great Babylon that I have 
built by the might of my power and for the 
honor of my majesty?" recall his real weak- 



134 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ness and ensuing abasement. The emphasis 
which Amos puts upon divine justice suggests 
Hosea's emphasis upon divine love. 

These are the laws of association upon 
which recollection depends. In so far as so- 
called memory systems employ these funda- 
mental principles of association they are 
useful; in imposing upon the mind connec- 
tions which are arbitrary, mechanical or ar- 
tificial, they are positively injurious. 

The Memory Period 

It is a matter of observation that mental 
powers mature in succession. The memory 
period is between the ages of six and twelve. 
The senses are very active, the feelings strong. 
Impressions are deep and while the child 
makes little effort to classify his experiences, 
and the law of association by similarity op- 
erates but slightly, association by contiguity 
is all-important. During this period the pos- 
sibilities of verbal memory are great. Whole 
chapters are learned with little effort. What 
would be a heroic task for the adult, to whom 
the laws of similarity appeal so strongly and 
whose mental processes are largely rational, 
is an easy matter for the child. This is the 



MEMORY 135 

period when vocabularies, simple definition, 
leading data in geography and focal dates 
in history and choice selections from the best 
literature should be permanently lodged in 
the mind. These things may be learned by 
heart if only imperfectly understood. It is 
foolish to say that nothing should be learned 
which is not fully apprehended. Hang the 
pictures on the wall when they may be had 
for the asking. There will be opportunity to 
know their rich full meaning in the strength 
of later unfolding mental processes when the 
mind deals them out to us with sparing hand 
and at great price. The parent and Sun- 
day-school teacher may wisely cooperate in 
storing the child-mind with suitable passages 
from the Bible and the great hymns of the 
church. This material carefully graded and 
explained will find easy lodgment in the 
soul, constituting in after years a source of 
power for service and a comfort and delight 
in the days, and perchance the ages, yet to 
come. 

Training the Memory 

There is a great difference in memory ca- 
pacity. It is explained largely in the differ- 



136 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ence of recording and correlating the facts. 
Poor memory is frequently a result of poor 
teaching. A teacher will find that good mem- 
ory and effective recall will depend upon the 
following : 

1. Clear perception. What is imperfect- 
ly apprehended cannot be accurately recalled. 
Help your pupils to observe closely, read 
carefully, and generalize accurately. Culti- 
vate clearness and conciseness in the presen- 
tation. Avoid vague, hazy, general statement. 
Teach children how to study, and in assign- 
ing a lesson point out what is especially im- 
portant. 

2. Living interest. Use objects and illus- 
trations plentifully. Employ a lively, inter- 
ested manner in teaching. Interest your pu- 
pils and they will remember you and what 
you teach. 

3. Visualizing power. This is the power 
by which the visual image of an object or an 
occurrence is retained in the mind in all its 
details. It is the ability to see things when 
they are absent. Some possess this power to 
a high degree. They retain the visual image 
of a paragraph or a page, and to repeat it is 
only a matter of re-reading the words of the 



MEMORY 137 

mental picture. Help the pupils to dwell 
upon the details of the Bible scenes and 
stories until the mental picture is so full of 
color and life that they seem almost a part 
of their actual experience. 

4. Repetition. Intensify the image, deep- 
en the impression of the most important 
items by intelligent repetition. The periods 
in the life of Christ and the leading events 
in each period must be drilled into the mind 
to render them permanently useful elements 
of knowledge. The repetition that is associ- 
ated with rhythm is very pleasing to children. 
Rhythm is a fundamental law of expression, 
and is particularly the language of emotion. 
Even where the meaning is little comprehend- 
ed children readily learn by repetition what 
is expressed in rhythmical form — poetry and 
song. 

5. Correlation. Associate the new fact 
with others. Employ the principle of asso- 
ciation by similarity as far as possible. Es- 
tablish thought-connections between it and 
other knowledge. This requires reflection 
and real effort. Emphasize relations and or- 
ganize all new material. Knit the new fact 
into the fabric of knowledge. Seek continu- 



138 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ally in lesson preparation for natural lines 
of association of ideas. 

To insure right memory habits do not at- 
tempt too much. Memory work requires 
time. Overloading the memory with facts 
without taking suitable time to correlate 
them is to abuse the memory. A earful ob- 
servance of God's laws of memory, written in 
the mind of every person will make teaching 
a delight, and your pupils with full anol 
ready minds and loyal hearts will rise up 
and call you blessed. 



XII. 
IMAGINATION. 



Definition 



Memory is compared to a great storehouse 
where the objects and events of our past ex- 
perience are retained. To this storehouse we 
continually go to find materials with which 
to compare and interpret our new experi- 
ences. Memory reproduces the past just as it 
occurred. All the elements of each experi- 
ence are recalled in their original relations. 
To live in memory is to live in the past, to 
live forever as we have lived. But imagina- 
tion introduces us to a new world. It reach- 
es forward into the future and anticipates 
new experiences. It is that power of the 
mind to select of the things of memory such 
elements as we prefer and to combine them 
into new forms of thought. We may neglect 
any undesirable features of our experiences 
and choose the brightest and best for a new 



140 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

formation unlike any which we have actu- 
ally known. This power is inseparably con- 
nected with progress and is perhaps the most 
fertile power of the soul. 

Constructive Imagination 

The picturing power of the mind, as we 
know it in memory is called reproductive inv 
agination. This power, as we have seen, is an 
aid to effective recall. It makes the past real 
and vivid and is of great assistance to the 
teacher in description and illustration. But 
imagination as generally understood is con- 
structive. It goes beyond experience and 
pictures a coming event or a place we have 
never seen. It modifies and transforms our 
memory images. It frees them from the ob- 
jects with which they were originally asso- 
ciated, and builds them up into new mental 
products. New knowledge grows by the exer- 
cise of this faculty. Every one uses it daily, 
whether in an artistic sense, or otherwise. 
A homesteader looks out upon the prairie 
and builds up a picture of house and barn 
and growing crops. The student pictures a 
future school in which he shall be a teacher, 
or it may be, a state-house in which he ad< 



IMAGINATION 141 

ministers the affairs of government, or a 
grand army of which he is the general. The 
girl pictures a cozy cottage of which she will 
be the mistress and furnishes it and adorns 
it to the last detail. The architect has vis- 
ions of houses different from those he has 
ever built. Constructive imagination is the 
great faculty of progress. Its object is some- 
thing new and better. 

Creative Imagination 

Occasionally one is found who makes new 
combinations with rare insight. He com- 
bines elements into forms which are of great 
significance. Such imagination is called cre- 
ative. It may be scientific and the result- 
ing product a steam-engine or a nebular 
hypothesis. It may be artistic, and there 
steps forth from the marble an Apollo Belvi- 
dere, or appears beneath the brush a Sistine 
Madonna. Or it may be literary or musical, 
and a Shakespeare and a Mendellsohn em- 
body creations which enchant and delight 
for all time. But in the strict sense no im- 
agination can be creative. It can only com- 
bine the old elements into new forms, old 
materials into new constructions. 



142 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Imagination and Ideals 

It will thus be seen that imagination is in- 
volved in the formation of ideals. Every in- 
ventor, sculptor, poet and artist selects from 
the materials with which he is acquainted 
those elements which will combine into forms 
of ideal worth. Sir Christopher Wren had 
such an ideal in the designing and construc- 
tion of buildings and it found expression in 
St. Paul's Cathedral. Beethoven had such an 
ideal of harmony and musical composition, 
which found expression in his matchless 
symphonies and overtures. In the activity of 
our imagination we are constantly forming 
ideals — ideals of location, beauty, happiness, 
faith, character. Out of these ideals we may 
constitute a world far richer and more beau- 
tiful than the world we actually know. If 
our ideal world is beautiful for us only it has 
no permanent value. Only as it appeals to 
others also can it be influential and abiding. 
There are ideals which are universal in their 
appeal. These are eternal. Blest indeed is 
he whose soul is furnished with those experi- 
ences and materials out of which he can build 
up ideals of permanent value and eternal 
worth. 



IMAGINATION 143 

Conscience 

It is interesting to see the relation of con- 
science to the imagination. Along with other 
ideals the imagination creates ideals of con- 
duct and character. After an ideal is formed 
it exercises a peculiar influence upon us. 
While we are affected by any ideal we may 
form, our moral ideals affect us most pow- 
erfully. We desire to realize them. We long 
to be all that we feel we may be. We judge 
our every act. If our act is in harmony with 
our moral ideal we approve it and experience 
the feeling of pleasure that accompanies sat- 
isfied aspiration. If we judge our act to be 
contrary to our ideal, we condemn it and ex- 
perience a feeling of remorse. The clearness 
with which conscience speaks to us depends 
upon the definiteness of our ideals. Without 
an ideal of faith, patience, righteousness, and 
moral heroism there can be no conscience 
and no call to duty. With- changing experi- 
ence our ideals change. The enrichment of 
ideals involves the education of conscience. 

Fancy 

This imaginative activity may issue in gro- 
tesque and absolutely unreal and unattrac 



144 fTHE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

tive forms. This is called phantasy or fancy. 
The child is particularly fond of this mental 
exercise. He builds up in his mind impossi- 
ble forms and products. It is his first con- 
structive effort, and it affords him all the 
exhilaration of genuine achievement. This is 
the fairy-tale stage. The child delights in 
his first experience of putting things togeth- 
er. It should be wisely encouraged and di- 
rected. A reasonable amount of myth and leg- 
end and fairy stories will develop the crea- 
tive impulse and give it a set and bent which 
will be of great advantage later on when the 
will takes full control. If unnourished the 
imaginative instinct will shrivel and die, and 
no amount of later coaxing will compensate 
for the early neglect. These unreal crea- 
tions may seem to the child wonderfully real. 
His limited experience furnishes him with 
too small a basis for accurate criticism. The 
boundary between the real and the ideal is 
vague and shadowy. He reports as actual 
what exists only in his imagination. He 
does not intend to tell a falsehood. 

Parent and teacher must here guide wisely. 
The skilful teacher will study to know how 
to combine imaginative materials with facts 



IMAGINATION 145 

and realities so that the growing mind may 
continue to delight in mental creations and 
at the same time cultivate an increasing 
reverence for the truth. Truth is correspond- 
ence to reality. Truth is more real if fact 
has a background of fancy. The teacher can 
be of real service to the child during the pe- 
riod of maturing fancy. Under his wise 
guidance the exuberance of the impulse of 
phantasy will yield to the full control of the 
will, and the constructive energies of the 
child will later bring forth abundant fruit- 
age in scientific, literary, artistic or practi- 
cal products, the real will separate from the 
unreal and there will arise a love of the real 
and a passion for the truth. 

Imagination and Feeling 

Imagination is stimulated and directed by 
feeling. A feeling of fear makes us imagine 
situations of terror. The emotion of love 
prompts the mother to imagine her son in 
places of honor and power. The feeling of 
appreciation of beauty directs the mind of 
the poet in the production of beautiful 
thought-forms. Since the imagination de- 
pends so largely upon our feelings, the edu- 



146 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

cation of our feelings or emotions becomes 
a matter of transcendent importance. Feel- 
ing is contagious. The teacher must be one 
who is capable of right feeling as well as ac- 
curate thinking. 

Imagination and Wilt 

While imagination takes its root in feeling 
the more important products of mental ef- 
fort are the result of the conscious exercise 
of the will. The imagination unrestrained 
issues in day-dreams and air-castles. This 
is a common form of mental dissipation. 
The temptation is to live in a realm of ro- 
mance, in a world in which the sterner as- 
pects of toil and duty are absent. But the 
will Jiolds the imagination to progress to- 
ward some desired result. The great task of 
the teacher at this point is not only to stim- 
ulate the imagination, but also to develop 
and direct the will. He may portray before 
the class conditions of squalor in a neglected 
district and thus excite feelings of sympathy 
and pity for the unfortunate, and then sug- 
gest the propriety of some constructive plan 
for their relief. 



IMAGINATION 147 

Imagination and Action 

It is highly important that children be 
taught to realize the consequences of their 
conduct and so avoid rash and hasty actions. 
Children frequently excuse themselves for 
some misdemeanor by saying, "I didn't 
think." This usually means that they did not 
have a clear image of the results of their ac- 
tion. If you can help your pupils to form the 
habit of picturing clearly and fully the prob- 
able consequences of their actions you will 
strengthen their will and enable them to ex- 
ercise it firmly and intelligently. It is the 
images which we carry with us that affect 
our conduct. As Gordy says, "Not reality, but 
what gets represented as reality — not what 
is, but what is imagined — affects our mental 
life." If a child has imagined in his mind 
that the world exists for him, he acts as 
though it were true. 

The products of the imagination are not to 
be regarded as an end in themselves. Pleas- 
ant as the exercise of the imagination may be, 
it must not terminate upon itself. A failure 
to reduce mental forms to actual construc- 
tions will eventually result in making one all 
that is implied in the word impractical and 



148 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

visionary. A failure to realize or approxi- 
mate the moral ideals which the imagination 
sets up before the mind will leave one charac- 
terless and weak, and result in a moral par- 
alysis from which there is no escape. Moral 
ideals and action can never be dissociated 
without consequent formalism and hypocrisy. 

Training of the Imagination 

Children are thought to be very imagina- 
tive because of the boldness of their imagery. 
Fancy is strong. The transformations are ex- 
travagant and produced under the excite- 
ment of the feeling of wonder. The progress 
of experience and growth of knowledge tend 
to bring the imagination under the control of 
the will. The natural craving that children 
have for stories points the way for the train- 
ing of the picture-forming faculty. Give 
them stories of real life, narratives of the ex- 
periences of other children, and descriptions 
of places and events. They will be less and 
less inclined to indulge in phantastic crea- 
tions and more capable of clear images of 
things and scenes. Under the stimulus of 
real sights and vivid descriptions their minds 
will form more and more elaborate comhina- 



IMAGINATION 149 

tions, until they can image in their m^nds> 
the scenery of the Holy Land, the royal city 
of Jerusalem and even sieges and battles. 
And then, touched by the Spirit of God, and 
led by the sympathetic teacher or parent, they 
may reach to the exercise of true faith which 
is the religious use of the imagination. Im- 
agination is the eye of the soul which jlu 
heathen Chaldea sees to the west a land of 
promise ; which sees in the offering of an only 
son the divine ability to raise him from the 
dead; which looks beyond the treasures of 
Egypt to the recompense of reward; and 
which sees beyond a sojourn in tabernacles 
a city which hath eternal foundations. The 
teacher should aspire to exercise in his pupils 
this power to demonstrate invisible realities 
so that from time to time they niay fill in and 
enrich the picture that John saw, the golden 
streets, the crystal river, the gates of pearl 
and the tree of life, until it seems to them a 
home in which they will be glad to live for- 
ever. 



XIII. 

THOUGHT. 

It has been observed that thinking is the 
highest possible attainment of the intellect. 
To think is to classify, to relate, to infer. 
Intelligence is a matter of generalization and 
inference. Our aim as teachers should be to 
produce not only Bible students, but intelli- 
gent Bible students ; not only Christians, but 
intelligent Christians. The best teacher is 
the one who trains his pupils to think. To 
perceive, to memorize, to imagine, are neces- 
sary processes in the acquisition of knowl- 
edge, but they constantly point the way to 
the higher process of thinking. The lower 
animals may have sensations and perform 
acts of memory and imagination; instinct 
and training help them to do many wonder- 
ful things, but they cannot think. Man alone 
thinks, because man alone is endowed with 
this comparative faculty. 

150 



THOUGHT 151 

What It Is to Think 

When we perform the mental acts pre- 
viously considered, we have dealt exclusively 
with individual things. We taste a particular 
orange, we recall the face of a particular 
friend or a particular past event. But we 
may consider fruit or friends in general. We 
may say that fruit is appetizing, or friends 
are one's best possessions. When we reason 
about things in general we think. Thinking 
involves three separate steps — conception, 
judgment, and reason. 

The Formation of Concepts 

The child's first notion of a dog is gained 1 
possibly from a shaggy Shepherd with which 
he played from day to day. The word dog 
was associated in his mind with the mental 
image of this particular dog. Later he saw 
other animals resembling in a general way 
his dog, but differing in shape, size and color. 
He hears the word dog applied to these also. 
He observes the different individual dogs, 
compares and contrasts them, draws away 
the features of resemblance or essential 
qualities, and groups them together into a 



152 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

concept or general idea to which he gives the 
name dog. As other specimens .are noticed 
which have qualities agreeing with the con- 
cept, his concept dog becomes fuller and 
clearer so that when he hears the remark, 
"Dogs are fierce," he does not think of any, 
particular dog, but of certain essential qual- 
ities which enter into his general idea of 
dog. 

In the same way the word chair does 
not stand for any particular chair, but cer 
tain essential qualities, as seat, back, and 
legs. Tree as a concept implies all the trees 
we have ever known, and includes the essen- 
tial qualities of trunk, branches, and foliage. 
The words dog, chair, and tree are symbols 
which stand for aggregations of essential ele- 
ments, and are class words or common nouns. 
As we examine the contents of our minds we 
find a large number of such class words. The 
mind is thus relieved of what would be an 
impossible burden of carrying the images of 
all the individual objects or experiences in 
our minds unrelated. We put them into 
classes, put a word on each class as a label, 
and carry the labels. This is a device of men- 
tal economy. It explains the power of the 



THOUGHT 153 

mind to store up facts. This power of the 
mind to compare objects or images, abstract 
their common qualities and group all the ob- 
jects possessing these common qualities un j 
der one name, is called conception. The prod- 
uct of this activity is called a concept. The 
end of concept-forming should be rich, full 
concepts, with a wide basis of experience and 
the essential qualities clearly recognized. 

Teaching Hints 

The mind tends to classify its material. 
When a new object is known the mind tries 
as soon as possible to place it in its appro- 
priate class. This is usually done at first ha- 
stily and carelessly. We find our general 
ideas in need of constant revision. If we 
place an object in the wrong class, and then 
reason about it as though it had the essential 
marks of that class, we fall into error. To 
avoid this error the teacher can assist the 
pupil : 

1. To observe closely. Indistinct con- 
cepts are usually the result of faulty or in- 
sufficient observation. Dissatisfy him with 
surface appearances. Teach him to penetrate 
to the hidden resemblances. 



154 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

2. To classify accurately. No individual 
or particular should be allowed to pass 
into the class which does not possess the es- 
sential attributes which characterize that 
class. Each class must be distinct and admit 
only those things that bear the essential 
marks. ' ; < 

3. To put content into the word symbols. 
Pupils sometimes fall into the shiftless habit 
of using words which in their .minds stand 
for little or nothing. They are constantly ap- 
propriating class words from their elders 
and from books without at the same time 
clearly apprehending the ideas behind them. 
It devolves upon the teacher always to see 
that they do not use words without under- 
standing the qualities and attributes which 
belong to them. 

4. To relate every new thing. Every 
unrelated percept or image is soon lost. If 
you examine the contents of children's minds 
you will find much unrelated or wrongly re- 
lated material. Only that which has a dis- 
covered point of resemblance is of any value. 
The teacher can suggest relationships and 
point out hidden lines of connection and as- 



THOUGHT 155 

sist the student to refer the new thing to its 
appropriate class. 

5. Frequent definition. We have seen that 
concepts undergo constant change. Our 
ideas of home, work, suffering, and death are 
quite different from those of the child. How 
our ideas of heaven have changed with the 
years. Our concepts of faithfulness, service, 
duty, and God have grown up out of the mul- 
tiplied experiences of the passing years. In 
a sense our realities change. The teacher 
must know what realities appeal to persons 
of different ages. Heaven represented as a 
realm of eternal rest would be a place of tor- 
ment to the average boy. A child that would 
sing, "I want to be an angel and with the 
angels stand" with any sense of meaning of 
the words would be a pious little hypocrite. 
The realities of children are largely earthly, 
and until disappointments thicken, the shad- 
ows deepen, and the faculties fail, this earth 
seems quite good enough. The teacher must 
know his pupils so that he may know their 
realities, what they think of and desire. He 
must take his words from their vocabulary. 
Unless the words stand for the same meaning 
in the minds of the teacher and the taught, 



156 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

how can the instructor make any progress? 
A sympathetic teacher will know the various 
realities which different experiences yield, 
and select his ideas and words accordingly. 
Words are only symbols. A real teacher 
takes nothing for granted, but tests his teach- 
ing by frequent definition to see if the words 
used in teaching stand for the same ideas for 
teacher and class. 

Concepts and Thought 

Concepts are the units out of which are 
built the higher processes of thought. The 
higher reasoning is concerned with these 
units. Lead the child through full and ac- 
curate perception, careful analysis, abstrac- 
tion and generalization to those clear gen- 
eral notions with which he can rear a struc- 
ture of truth which will not crumble beneath 
all the attacks of criticism and doubt. Edu- 
cation is the process of acquiring ideas. "The 
best educated mind," as Professor James 
says, "has the most ideas ready to meet the 
largest possible variety of the emergencies 
of life." Here lies the opportunity of the 
Sunday-school teacher. 



THOUGHT 157 

Judgment 

As soon as the child has formed a general 
idea it constitutes a standard of reference. A 
particular object may be compared with it 
and its agreement asserted. This assertion 
is a judgment. After forming the concept an- 
imal, he finds that his dog has the qualities 
of the concept animal and makes the judg- 
ment, "My dog is an animal." In this way 
new things are being constantly referred to 
old concepts and find their place in the 
knowledge system. When the two judgments 
disagree we have a negative judgment, "My 
dog is not a bird." 

Mating Ideas 

As general ideas increase the mind con- 
tinues to compare these .also. "Stones are 
hard;" "forgiveness is godlike." This estab- 
lishment of relations has been appropriate- 
ly called the "mating of ideas." The mind ex- 
hibits a strong tendency to thus mate ideas. 
When children discover the pleasure of this 
exercise for some time they go about con- 
stantly making assertions. They seem to 
challenge opposition in order to assert more 
strongly. 



158 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Office of Judgment 

New facts are continually sweeping into 
the mind through the senses. These facts 
demand adjustment with other facts; they 
require explanation. To explain a fact 
is to establish its connections with our 
whole body of knowledge. To explain 
the rising of the sun is to see that fact 
in relation to the rotation of the earth on its 
axis. The office of the judgment is to ex- 
plain by discovering and asserting relations. 
By it logical comparisons are apprehended. 
"Seeing these relations between the different 
tobjects in thought is of the highest educa- 
ional utility. To explain God is to lead the 
child to identify Him with the attributes oi 
love and mercy and power and majesty and 
glory. Thus we bring Him within our com- 
prehension." (Brumbaugh.) 

Training the Judgment 

Baldwin has said that teaching is the art 
of training the pupil to think. No training 
can be complete which does not provide for 
the education of the judgment. Children err 
in forming judgments for several reasons: 



THOUGHT 159 

1. They do not take time for comparisons 
and deliberation. 

2. They accept the ideas and judgments 
of others without examination and criticism. 

3. They are creatures of strong prejudice. 
The training of the judgment will make this 
faculty more accurate. To train the judg- 
ment the child must do his own thinking. 
The true teacher will assist him just enough 
to keep him on the right track to the right 
conclusion. The true method is from percept 
to concept, from concept to judgment. See 
that your pupil is clear in his concepts and 
word-meanings, and then encourage him to 
make the conclusion himself. Again, impor- 
tant as the memory is, an ounce of judg- 
ment is worth a ton of memory exhibi- 
tion. "It is easier to lead the memory than 
to train the judgment and the short and easy 
method is too frequently adopted." Every 
fact has numerous connections. A trained 
judgment will connect up each fact with as 
many others as possible. This is a normal 
and healthy activity of the mind which builds 
up an orderly and compact system of knowl- 
edge. Organized knowledge is useful knowl- 
edge/ 



160 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Reasoning 

Just as the comparison of objects or 
images results in the formation of concepts; 
as the comparison of concepts results in 
judgments; so the comparison of judgments 
results in reasoning. Reasoning is the highest 
phase of thinking. As the concept is a men- 
tal abstraction and the judgment the estab- 
lishment of relations between abstractions, 
so reasoning is an abstract process, the 
highest attainment of the mind. It should 
be the aim of the teacher to lead the pupil 
on to this highest thought process. 

Induction and Deduction 

These are the terms applied to the two 
principal methods of reasoning. In the com- 
parison of judgments we may proceed from 
particular instances to a conclusion. This 
is the inductive method. "Under this method 
I teach: Jacob sinned; he repented; God 
forgave him. David sinned, repented, and 
God forgave him. Therefore the conclusion, 
If a man sin and repent, God will forgive 
him. By the deductive method I teach, If 
a man sin and repent, God will forgive him. 
Jacob sinned and repented; God forgave 



THOUGHT 161 

him." (Slattery.) In reasoning with the 
Jews at Thessalonica, Paul used the de- 
ductive method. The Christ expected by the 
Jews must suffer and die and rise. This! 
Jesus whom I preach suffered and died and 
rose again; therefore the Jesus whom I 
preach unto you is the Christ. By the latter 
method we proceed from a general law to 
particular cases. This is deduction. The in- 
ductive method is the natural method of edu- 
cation. It begins with the examination of 
particular instances, encourages discovery, 
and leads up to new knowledge. When the 
general truth has been reached the child 
should be encouraged to apply it to new 
cases. 

Analogy 

This is a common method of reasoning. 
The earth is of known size, seasons, tempera- 
ture, force of gravity, and atmosphere, and 
is inhabited. Astronomers tell us that the 
planet Mars is similar to the earth in size, 
seasons, temperature, force of gravity and 
atmosphere. We infer, therefore, that Mars 
is inhabited. This conclusion is much less 
satisfying than those reached by indue- 



162 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH Hlltf 

tion and deduction. However, if the objects 
compared have many points of resemblance, 
the conclusion reaches a high degree of prob- 
ability; if the resemblances are few we are 
slow to accept a conclusion. 

Practical Reasoning 

The formal methods of deduction and in- 
duction are in common experience relatively 
rare. Reasoning by analogy is a more com- 
mon process by which most persons arrive 
at conclusions. In a similar way they apply 
ready-made judgments to the various situa- 
tions of their daily life, and proceed to ad- 
just themselves accordingly. This rapid and 
short-cut process of inference is possible only 
when the mind has been furnished by expe- 
rience with a considerable number of fa- 
miliar general principles. 

It is quite important that individuals are 
able to form these rapid conclusions in mat- 
ters of conduct. This may be done when 
there exist in the mind and heart definite 
and clear fundamental moral principles. The 
establishment of these in the pupil's mind is 
the privilege and duty of the teacher. He 
should remember, however, that what seems 



THOUGHT 163 

so fundamental to him is not likely to be so 
obvious to the untrained thinker, and must 
be developed within him by the longer and 
more analytical reasoning processes. Very 
much of the adult reasoning is quite beyond 
the reach of the average pupil. Each step 
of the explanation and proof should be kept 
within his mental grasp. When these gen- 
eral moral principles are thoroughly under- 
stood and fully accepted by the pupil, they 
may be instantly applied to the complicated 
situations that arise in daily life. The per- 
manent possession of these moral standards, 
capable of ready reference, contribute to men- 
tal and moral economy, and makes delibera- 
tion unnecessary in those critical moments 
when to hesitate is to lose. 

Reasoning Period 

The reason is the last mental faculty to 
mature and is the product of years of growth 
and experience. It is a mistake, therefore, to 
attempt to compel children to see reasons 
and to draw conclusions at too early an age. 
"The early years are for gathering material 
and storing memory that when the right 
time comes there shall be something in the 



164 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

mind upon which to base reasons." We might 
call this truth axiomatic. 

At fifteen the memory is active and the 
exercise of it gives a peculiar exhilaration. 
The five years following find all things sub- 
jected to a searching examination, and the 
tendency is to reject everything the reasons 
for which are not immediately forthcoming. 
With many the development of the reason is 
attended with doubt and a thorough investi- 
gation of the foundation of belief. Religious 
doubts at this period are no sure sign of con- 
firmed skepticism. They are incident to the 
effort to understand the mysterious in the 
world of sense or of spirit. Under wise 
treatment the agitation of doubt may pass 
into the calm of a settled faith, and the de- 
mand of unbelief, "Show me the prints of the 
nails," may be followed by the utterance of 
abiding faith, "My Lord and my God." 

Reasoning and Cause 

Reasoning involves an inquiry into the 
cause of things. "To find a reason for a thing 
is to ascertain its cause and so explain its 
occurrence." While the idea of cause is in- 
nate and does not require proof, it is devel- 



THOUGHT 165 

oped in the child mind in the course of expe- 
rience. The child early notices that things 
are associated in a certain order; food is 
followed by satisfaction, a sharp blow by 
pain. He associates his own actions with 
results, and gradually arrives at the idea 
of cause. The relation seems so fixed in his 
experiences that he concludes at length that 
every change has a cause, and that every 
action involving change has a purpose. Ques- 
tions now come thick and fast, and the inter- 
rogative "why" breaks in with embarrassing 
pertinacity. How easy it is now to lead the 
child mind up to the idea of God as the 
great Cause; who made all things, and all 
things with a purpose. This can usually be 
done so wisely and so well that later in the 
evil day when doubt and criticism exercise 
his mind, he will find the existence of God 
the most fundamental proposition of his 
growing philosophy, and heartily accept the 
wisdom of the psalmist when he said, "The 
fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." 



XIV. 

THE FEELINGS. 

Education to be complete must include the 
whole life of the soul. Feeling is a funda- 
mental aspect of our soul life. Education 
is too often limited to the intellect. It 
should include the feelings — our emotional 
and affectional natures. The truest educa- 
tion not only informs the mind and issues 
in action, but as well captures the affections. 
The heart is the figurative Bible phrase for 
the feelings. Complete education enables 
the pupil to hide the word in his heart, and 
to keep his heart "with all diligence, for out 
of it are the issues of life." 

Nature o£ Feelings 

As the child proceeds on his life journey 
and comes in contact with an ever-changing 
environment, his soul constantly reports to 
itself how his environment affects him. He 

166 



JTHB PEELINGS 167 

finds himself at times affected in an agree- 
able manner, at other times in a disagree- 
able manner. Of these affections he calls 
the one pleasure and the other pain. Every 
experience is attended by one or the other 
of these feelings. Both objects and ideas 
excite them. Every act of the body, every 
act of perception, memory, imagination, or 
will, is accompanied in some degree by one 
or the other of these feelings. As the soul 
goes on reacting upon its environment and 
feeding upon the knowledge which it ac- 
quires, the feelings constantly report con- 
cerning its welfare. Pleasure testifies that 
the soul is finding in its surroundings such 
activities as are normal and conducive to 
health. Pain is nature's way of telling us 
that our experiences are abnormal and ruin- 
ous. 

Development ot the Feelings 

Just as the intellectual activities develop 
from the simple to the complex, so the feel- 
ings with experience and exercise become in- 
creasingly complex. The first feelings are 

1. Sensations. These are the feelings 
that are localized in the body and that are 



168 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

connected with the senses. The early life 
of the child is concerned chiefly with nutri- 
tion and growth, hence early mental life 
consists chiefly of sense feelings. The nat- 
ural appetites, as hunger, thirst, weariness, 
restlessness, are instinctive bodily cravings 
which are more or less painful and which 
result in pleasure when satisfied. With the 
development of the intellectual life and the 
accumulation of ideas, the association of 
ideas and sense-feelings result in 

2. Emotions. This form of feeling is 
more complex than sensation. It arises from 
ideas rather than from physical stimulation. 
It has its origin in the reproduction in the 
mind of some pain or pleasure, and always 
tends to find outward expression. Thus the 
emotion of love originates in the mental as- 
sociation of a person with various pleas- 
urable sensations, and it tends to express it- 
self in favors and blessings. The association 
in the mind of an object which threatens 
bodily injury and the imaged feeling of pain 
that has resulted from previous injury, gives 
rise to fear, which tends to express itself in 
flight. The mental association of a person 
that thwarts activity or opposes gratification 



THE FEELINGS 169 

with the feeling of pain that follows an in- 
jury, produces an emotion of anger or re- 
venge. The natural expression of this emo- 
tion is an act of destruction of the thwart- 
ing object or person. Other emotions are 
respect and sympathy. As the mind is 
further furnished with ideas and judgments 
a still higher form of feeling appears in the 
so-called 

3. Sentiments. These are feelings of pain 
or pleasure that accompany ideas and their 
relation to one another. They are less in- 
tense and more enduring than emotions. 
There arises a pleasurable feeling in the ac- 
quisition of knowledge and the discovery of 
truth. This is called the intellectual senti- 
ment. With the recognition of the agreement 
of an object with an ideal standard of form 
or color, we have the esthetic sentiment, or 
the feeling that accompanies apprehension 
of beauty. Again the feeling that arises 
from a comparison of an act with an ideal 
standard of conduct gives rise to the moral 
sentiment. Moral feeling is the highest type 
of feelings. The great majority of persons 
live in the lower feelings. They are dom- 
inated by the pleasures of the body, or are 



170 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

animated by the egoistic emotions of anger 
and hate. It is the privilege of the teacher to 
introduce the child to the altruistic emotions 
of love and sympathy, and the noble feelings 
that accompany right action. The recogni- 
tion of the higher feelings is the basis of cul- 
ture and right character. 

Why CuitiVate the Feelings 

1. Feeling stands in intimate relation to 
knowing. It supplies interest without which 
there can be no intellectual growth. The cul- 
tivation of the feelings multiplies the inter- 
ests of life and thus enriches life. 

2. Feeling is essential to doing. Pleas- 
ures and pains are incentives to action. This 
is the case when they are present in idea as 
well as in reality. Feeling supplies desire 
without which there can be no willing. 
Strong feeling is requisite to decisive action. 
Habitual conduct follows our dominant feel- 
ings. 

3. Feeling grows by cultivation. At first 
violent, transient, selfish, and destructive, 
they may by regulation and guidance de- 
velop into those strong emotions and lofty 
sentiments which prompt to noble deeds. 



THE FEELINGS 171 

Emotions and Instincts 

The child is a creature of instincts. He 
puts forth activity in certain ways for his 
advantage without being taught. Among the 
instincts are those of play, rivalry, combat- 
iveness, and imitation. These instinctive acts 
are accompanied by characteristic emotions. 
By cultivating the instinct of play in com- 
pany with others the parent may cultivate in 
the child the feeling of sympathy and emula- 
tion. By fostering the instinct of combative- 
ness the emotion of anger grows strong. In- 
like manner fear, cowardice, self-respect, and 
love of power, early acquire a momentum 
and a bent which lead to emotional habits, 
and these develop into emotional tempera- 
ments and moods. What an injustice to a 
child to treat him so that the emotions of 
fear and anger are over-developed. The par- 
ent and teacher should so train the instincts 
that the accompanying emotions shall be 
contentment, cheerfulness, and hope, rather 
than the painful feelings of grief, anxiety, 
sullenness, and antipathy. 

Training the Emotions 

This involves associating the various emo- 



172 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

tions with the proper objects. Even the feel- 
ings that seem to be undesirable must be pre- 
served and directed into the right channels. 
1. Recognizing the law of growth by ex- 
ercise, repress so far as possible the wrong 
feelings and guard against opportunities for 
their manifestation. A child prone to anger 
should be kept out of the society of tanta- 
lizing companions and nagging, scolding su- 
periors. Avoid provocation and open conflict 
with the quick-tempered and the obstinate. 
Many parents unwittingly foster vanity in 
their children by the "putting on of ap- 
parel;" puff them up to ridiculous self-im- 
portance by parading them; lead them on to 
pride of intellect and social standing by un- 
worthy comparisons and injudicious praise; 
cultivate irreverence by speaking lightly of 
God, His house, His ministers, His children. 
On the other hand, if we give children pleas- 
ure in the company of others by suitable rec- 
reation and activity, we inevitably stimulate 
the emotion of love and sympathy. The pleas- 
ure of the recreation comes to be associ- 
ated with the persons with whom it is en- 
joyed, and so their society comes to be de- 
sired. Children need the society of other 



THE FEELINGS 173 

children to develop suitably the social feel- 
ings. 

2. Recognizing the law that every emo- 
tion has its bodily expression, it will be seen 
that emotion without expression is impos- 
sible, and that to assume the bodly attitude 
of expression is the surest way to suggest 
and induce that emotion. Clinch the fists 
and gnash the teeth and anger standeth at 
the door. Attend the funeral of even a 
stranger, assume the attitude and expression 
of sorrow out of deference to the friends and 
the occasion, and soon genuine feelings of 
sorrow and sympathy arise. Control as far 
as we can our own physical expressions and 
those of the children, and the feelings them- 
selves will be modified and transformed. 

3. As emotions are the accompaniments 
of ideas, it follows that the emotions will be 
influenced by the cultivation of the intellect. 
Certain forms of fear will be seen to be un- 
reasonable. The knowledge of the principles 
of art will develop the aesthetic sensibilities. 
The knowledge of God and His works will 
draw out admiration for the moral law. Feel- 
ing and knowing mutually react. 

4. Connect with suitable objects. Emo- 



174 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

tions arise in connection with instincts re- 
lated to self-preservation, so that even the 
emotions that seem undesirable have their 
place when rightly exercised. Anger should 
be associated with tyranny and persecution, 
and become righteous indignation which de- 
liberately plans for relief and punishment 
"Be ye angry and sin not." The feelings of 
self-importance may be so associated with 
worthy ideals of self-respect, that one may 
develop in proper feelings of self-respect, and 
in that love of self which is the standard of 
our love for others. Fear that is paralyzing 
and cowardly may by proper association be- 
come affectionate fear, which is the "begin- 
ning of wisdom." And love may be centered 
upon God, and be the motive force of all 
conduct — that blissful emotion which with 
suitable opportunities for its full exercise 
makes heaven. This connection of the 
emotions with worthy objects in its complete 
sense implies a transformation of the heart- 
life that only God Himself has power to 
effect. But we can be laborers together with 
Him, and in the expression of true joy in His 
love exchange the heart of stone for a heart 
of flesh. 



THE FEELINGS 175 

Practical Suggestions 

Out of the foregoing principles we draw 
the following: 

1. Make the physical conditions in the 
Sunday-school pleasurable. This will mean 
comfortable seats, good ventilation, light 
room, and a varying program. The pleasures 
of these conveniences will by the transference 
of feeling come to be associated with the les- 
sons of truth and Bible study. 

2. Take advantage of the aesthetic feel* 
ings. Children admire the beautiful. Every 
Sunday-school can do much for the definite 
culture of these lofty sentiments by the use 
of pictures. Half-tone reproductions of the 
best works of art are available. These may 
be given to the pupils or framed for the walls 
of the Sunday-school room. The influence of 
a beautiful picture elevates the taste, and 
awakens love and reverence. 

3. Be a teacher animated by the higher 
feelings. Let these control during the class 
period. Feeling radiates. Reverence and 
sympathy are communicated from teacher to 
class. 

4. As the social feelings develop, and the 
pupil craves friendship and companionship, 



176 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

let these feelings find in the occupations and 
recreations of the class their natural satis- 
faction. The teacher should be the chum and 
best friend of every member of the class. 

5. Appeal should more and more be made 
to the higher feelings as they develop. The 
intellectual and moral sentiments are the 
truest incentives to right conduct, and hence 
transition should be made from the lower 
pleasures as soon as possible. 

6. Let feeling find expression in action. 
Feeling as well as knowledge exists for right 
'action. If feeling exhausts itself without 
finding an outlet in action, it degenerates 
into sickly sentimentality which is destruc- 
tive alike of healthy feeling and vigorous 
action. The teacher who dares to awaken 
feeling in his pupils must meet the responsi- 
bility of finding something for them to do. 
The curse of our Sunday-schools is a failure 
to suggest and provide the proper terminal 
facilities of all our knowing and feeling. 



XV. 

THE MORAL AND RELIGIOUS 
SENTIMENTS. 

With the cultivation of the soul, the feel- 
ings as well as the intellectual powers under- 
go a development from the simple to the 
more complex. As we ascend the scale of 
feeling we pass from simple physical feelings 
of pleasure and pain through the various 
emotions of fear, anger, and love to the high 
est forms of feeling known as sentiments. 

The Sentiments Explained 

When a feeling is excited by an idea, we 
call the feeling an emotion. When an emo- 
tion involves the exercise of judgment or 
reason we have sentiment. Emotions are sud 
den, transitory, and overmastering. Senti 
ments are less active and more enduring. 
Sentiments are feelings called forth by the 

177 



178 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

recognition of an ideal and are the highest 
products of the human soul. 

Class i (i cation 

It has been observed that sentiments are 
feelings that arise from a consideration of 
standards or ideals. The intellectual senti- 
ments deal with the standards of truth, the 
basis of the science of logic. The aesthetic- 
sentiments deal with standards of beauty 
and are considered in the branch of knowl- 
edge called aesthetics. The moral sentiments 
arise from social relations and have to do 
with an ideal standard of conduct. Ques- 
tions of conduct in relation to an ideal of be- 
havior and character constitute the subject 
matter of ethics. The religious sentiment is 
a moral sentiment which grows out of our 
relation to God. In religious sentiment the 
soul finds its highest realization. 

"Morality of Childhood 

The child early exhibits tendencies toward 
right or wrong. These tendencies are the re- 
sult partly of heredity and partly of his en- 
vironment. The child is at first the creature 
of instincts and impulses. As these impulses 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 179 

become regulated by an enlightened will, be 
is said to become moral. Children borrow 
their moral ideas from others. They mani- 
fest curious moral inconsistencies and con 
traductions. Their moral standards are 
erected gradually and sometimes very slowly. 
The problem of the teacher is complicated 
by the fact that no two pupils exhibit the 
same moral conditions or capacities. Side 
by side in the same class are persons with 
widely differing tendencies, with widely dif- 
fering conceptions of right and wrong, and 
with many erroneous ideas gained from their 
surroundings in the home or on the street. 
Many children are not so much immoral as 
unmoral. The teacher must help them to see 
the consequences of their acts, to appreciate 
the value of motives and to honor and edu- 
cate their conscience. An appeal to honor 
where there is no proper standard of honor 
is futile. 

Development ot the Moral Judgment , 

The child is at first without moral judg- 
ment. He is only potentially moral. His 
early ideas of morality arise in relation to 
parental law. His ideas of right and wrong 



180 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

grow out of his obedience to customary com- 
mands enforced by penalties and rewards. 
The law of the home is soon supplemented by 
the law of the community personified by the 
policeman. Batting a ball through a neigh- 
boring window brings many a boy into con- 
tact with a superior power which may exact 
a penalty from him and thereby quicken his 
respect for social relations and enlarge his 
power of moral perception. 

Social games also teach children moral dis- 
tinctions. To take part, they must have re- 
spect for rules which require fair play. 
Through plays and games the child's social 
horizon is widened and he learns voluntary 
cooperation and increasing respect for the 
rights of others. 

The time comes, however, in the develop- 
ment of the child, when the command, "Thou 
shalt not" of external authority is exchanged 
for the spontaneous obedience to a self-im- 
posed law. This is true morality when he 
makes the moral law his own by giving him- 
self in voluntary obedience to its spirit. It 
is a free choice of a course of action which 
appeals to his judgment as conserving the 
true interests of himself and others. At first, 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 181 

relatively few acts are conceived as objects 
of moral value. Progress in morality con- 
sists not only in a gradual elevation and a 
greater distinctness of moral standards, but 
also in the inclusion of more and more acts 
among those held to be of moral worth. The 
true conception of morality is that no acts 
are indifferent. Perfect morality is realized 
in religion, which calls forth the injunction 
of the apostle, "Whether therefore ye eat, or 
drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory 
of God." 

Teaching Morals 

Herbart is quoted as saying that education 
which does not have morality as its supreme 
end must result in hopeless confusion. The 
teacher's great work is to develop in the 
mind of his pupil proper ideas of right and 
wrong, and make these ideas effectual in life. 
Moral instruction may begin in the teaching 
of manners. Good manners imply a recogni- 
tion of others and enter into agreeable com- 
panionships. Courtesy and a recognition of 
the forms of social intercourse are not only 
virtues in themselves, but lead to other and 
higher virtues. To be thoughtful of others, to 



182 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

respect their rights, to be generous and mod- 
est, to appear well at the table, in the parlor 
or on the street, are an important part of 
one's education. 

Moral instruction involves also the devel- 
opment of the feeling of obligation. It is a 
feeling that what can be done to benefit 
others is a duty. The teacher must clearly 
define the duties owing to self, to others, and 
to God. He will develop the obligation to re- 
spect life, to avoid the interference of others, 
to have regard for the character and the 
property of others, and to respect the truth. 
Truth is at the basis of all morality and the 
foundation of character. 

Moral instruction makes use of the mo- 
tives of pain and pleasure, but does not rest 
with these. To do the right from a hope of 
reward or from fear of punishment is not 
morality. The right must be chosen for its 
own sake, or because it is right. The teacher 
must make his final appeal to the moral sense 
of the pupil. He will secure the growth of 
the moral sense by providing for its exercise. 
He must recognize the conscience of the pu- 
pil and seek to arouse it rather than to 
force it. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 183 

Moral training will make large use of the 
feeling of sympathy. This feeling, at first 
only incipient, may develop into a powerful 
emotion, and become a strong incentive to 
moral action. Emphasis upon the Golden 
Rule tends to cultivate sympathy. As one 
thinks of himself in the place of others, the 
child becomes less cruel, the youth more con- 
siderate of others, and the man less harsh in 
judgment and action. 

While morality may be inculcated by wise 
instruction, it is more fully developed in the 
pupil by example. The conscious or uncon- 
scious imitation of the acts of parent, teacher 
or friend is more potent in moral training 
than much scolding, intimidation, or any 
amount of exercise of authority. Children 
assume with wonderful alacrity the acts of 
those who show interest and sympathy and 
appreciation. 

The Conscience 

Conscience is the activity of the soul in 
self -judgment. It is the self in the act of 
judging itself. It is the voice of the soul 
speaking on matters of conduct. The con- 
science testifies in connection with every act 



184 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM ? 

committed or purposed that is apprehended 
to have moral quality. It says, "That is 
right," or "That is wrong." In times of men- 
tal and moral clearness, it speaks in thunder 
tones. 

The activity of conscience is twofold. It 
is the activity of the intellect in judgment 
upon an act compared with a standard of 
conduct set up in the moral law. In this ju- 
dicial capacity conscience is both accuser and 
judge. When one arraigns himself before 
himself, conscience accuses and condemns 
or acquits. Conscience is also the character- 
istic feeling that accompanies the exercise of 
moral judgment. It is the feeling of ap- 
proval or disapproval, and is especially 
marked in connection with past acts in the 
feeling of remorse which is one of the most 
intense of the emotions. When the judgment 
passes a severe sentence of condemnation, 
and the consequences are wholly beyond re- 
call, remorse may pass into the feeling of 
despair. 

As conscience is part of the mental endow- 
ment of an individual, it may be said to be 
God-given. In so far as it may be developed 
through the exercise of judgment and feel- 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 185 

ing, it is the product of education. An en- 
lightened conscience is a truly educated con- 
science, which apprehends clearly the moral 
law, the obligation of the individual to ob- 
serve it, and the motives and likely conse- 
quences of his acts. A good conscience is an 
enlightened conscience, and follows one's ef- 
fort to live according to his best judgment 
and truest feelings. A seared conscience is 
the result of a perverted moral judgment and 
a loss of moral feeling. It is a confusion of 
moral distinctions and is really a blunting or 
destruction of the moral sense. It may re- 
sult from deliberately calling wrong right 
and right wrong, or from a mere neglect to 
recognize the authority of conscience or to 
obey its voice. This moral derangement is the 
penalty of being untrue to the laws of our 
being, and to God who wrote the laws in the 
human soul, and is moral suicide. 

Development of the Conscience 

The teacher may look upon his work as 
that of a developing in his pupils a good con- 
science. To be conscientious implies the hab- 
it of reflecting on the motives of conduct, 
and also extreme care with regard to out- 



186 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ward acts. It is to ask one's self, "Did I do 
the right act with the right motive?" "Is my 
life on the plane which corresponds to my 
ideal of what life should be?" This process 
of self-examination will call attention to the 
general principles of nis conduct, and to 
awaken him to a new sense of duty. A 
teacher may at proper times help a student 
to study his own motives, and to view his 
general attitude in life. 

While a study of the inner life is helpful, 
it sometimes indicates a morbid state of 
mind. Teachers of adolescents passing 
through the storm and stress period must use 
great caution at this point. On the whole it 
is better to direct the mind of the youth to 
some external type than to fix the attention 
upon the inner motives. Here is the oppor- 
tunity of the teacher to hold up as examples 
of right action and right motives the heroes 
of the past, and especially and always the 
Hero of the ages, the Ideal of all ideals, the 
man of Galilee. 

Childhood Conscience 

The sense of right and wrong appears 
early. Conscience is active often at the age 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 187 

of four. A little later it shows itself in con- 
fessions of wrong-doing. "I couldn't rest un- 
til I told you." The parent should encourage 
this exercise of conscience. Not a scolding or 
punishment should reward such confession, 
but caress and counsel. Merciful and loving 
treatment from father, mother or teacher 
may make it easier for him to acknowledge 
his sins to his heavenly Father "who upbraid- 
eth not." 

The youth may seem to have no conscience, 
but he keeps it hidden behind a rough ex- 
terior. It can be found and appealed to not 
in vain. During the years of the reasoning 
period — from sixteen to twenty — is a critical 
time for the conscience. The tendency to 
reason is strong. The young man will reason 
with his conscience. He will trifle with con- 
science. He will refuse to act upon its ad- 
vice when he is convinced of the wisdom of 
its counsel. New environments, larger out- 
looks, stronger temptations may obscure the 
bright ideals of life and confuse the voice of 
conscience. How needful a teacher who 
knows how to help, and who knows how to 
secure the assistance of the great Helper! 

Adult conscience often presents strange 



188 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

anomalies. Some men have a double or even 
a multiple standard of morality. They 
may denounce stealing and fraud, and yet 
smuggle goods through a custom-house. They 
have a general standard of honesty, and an- 
other standard as a sharp business or pro- 
fessional man. The teacher of adults will try 
to point out such inconsistencies, and secure 
the acceptance of a principle of action which 
will unify all conduct. An inconsistent Chris- 
tian may be honest or ignorant in his incon- 
sistency, but he is a reproach to the cause he 
professes to love. 

Moral Evil 

Moral defects may be considered either as 
overt acts known as sins or crimes, or as 
flaws of character. A superficial judgment 
would be to regard the sinful act as of more 
importance than the sinful condition of the 
heart. But Jesus taught the deeper concep- 
tion of morality which attaches as much sig- 
nificance to the evil in the heart as to the 
evil in the outward act. The Christian stand- 
ard of morality, further, recognizes that an 
act which is outwardly good may in reality 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 189 

be evil if it is not done from the highest mo- 
tive. 

Sin is moral evil in its widest sense. Crime 
denotes offenses against society which are 
recognized by law. One may be moral in the 
eyes of the law and yet be a sinner before 
God. Sin is always attended by evil conse- 
quences, which in one way or another involve 
the perpetrator. Guilt always recoils upon 
the head of the offender in some sort of pun- 
ishment which asserts the majesty of the law, 
and ought to lead to reformation and forgive- 
ness. Real reformation begins with God's 
pardon and regenerating power. 

Religious Sentiments 

Moral sentiments grow out of our relation 
with others. They are the feelings of Tight- 
ness, wrongness, and obligation or responsi- 
bility. They accompany our conception of 
an ideal moral order in the world. Religious 
sentiments are moral and social in their na- 
ture and grow out of our conception of God 
as a perfect personality with whom we stand 
in social relation, and who reveals to us the 
possibilities of personal character. In relig- 
ion we recognize God as an object of worship, 



190 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

love and obedience. Keligion has the intel- 
lectual element. It recognizes God as sum- 
ming up the rational and moral order of the 
world in Himself a person. True religion 
appeals also most powerfully to the emo- 
tions. Over emphasis of the intellectual ele- 
ment results in mere religious philosophy. 
Over emphasis of the emotional element 
tends to fanaticism and mere emotional ex- 
citement. The religious sentiments are rev- 
erence, peace, faith, and love. They are pow- 
erful emotions and are incentives to the no- 
blest actions and most heroic endeavors. The 
teacher can inculcate habits of reverence, 
faith, and love. The discipline in the Sun- 
day-school, and the dignified order in every 
religious service, the stately hymns and devo- 
tional prayers, should suggest unmistakably 
to the child heart a reverential attitude to- 
ward God. 

The religious sentiments can be known 
fully only in religious experience. Then is 
realized that peace that passes all under- 
standing, that feeling of harmony and recon- 
ciliation which follows the full surrender of 
the will. Faith also blossoms and grows that 
feeling of absolute trust in the power and 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS 191 

love of the Infinite, and that assurance that, 
out of that which is, will in His own good 
time come that which ought to be. Love also 
finds its richest meaning in religion. It is 
an intense feeling of satisfaction that comes 
from a consciousness of rightful fellowship 
with Jesus Christ through similarity of char- 
acter. The Sunday-school teacher will not be 
satisfied in inculcating morality, but will la- 
bor to bring every student to know the love 
of Christ which passeth knowledge that he 
"may be filled with all the fulness of God." 



XVI. 

WILL, HABIT AND CHAEACTER. 

The world is a place for action. From the 
first there have been gardens "to dress and 
keep," and in this arrangement we have found 
our greatest opportunity and made our high- 
est attainments. Jesus came to minister, 
and to found a kingdom in which member- 
ship should be conditioned upon a life of ser- 
vice. The mere display of mind or exercise 
of feeling, wonderful as these are, avail 
nothing. Doing is the law of life, physical, 
mental, and spiritual. The wise man who 
builds his house upon the rock, which stands 
after the storm is past, is not the man that 
hears and feels, and imagines and desires 
and reasons, but he that "doeth." The "doer 
of the work" is blessed, not in his wise plan- 
ning or his magnetic enthusiasm, but "in his 
doing." The former exists for the latter. 
They may not be separated. 

192 



193 



Wilting and Doing 

Doing that blesses and is blessed is action 
with will in it. Action with will in it is 
called voluntary action. This is to be dis- 
tinguished from I 

1. Impulsive actions— those spontaneous 
movements which follow the stimulations of 
the senses, without aim or purpose. Impulsive 
actions are characteristic of children, and 
explain many things even in adult activity 
otherwise hard to understand. It is hard for 
some persons to see a train pass without 
some sort of impulsive response — waving the 
hand, jumping, shouting, or throwing a stone. 
Mental excitement tends to express itself. 

Q. Instinctive actions, which are related 
to the promotion of life, and reach out 
toward ends, but not seriously. The bee 
which so industriously stores up honey for 
its winter wants, and the ant to which the 
wise man sends the sluggard to school, per- 
form all their labor in accordance with the 
workings of instinct. The child is possessed 
of many instincts which emerge successively 
during his lengthly immaturity — instincts to 
seek food, to seek protection, to seek com- 
panionship, to unite in groups and com- 



194 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

panies for mutual intercourse. The dis- 
position of some children to fight and of oth- 
ers to steal may grow out of the instincts of 
self-protection and acquisitiveness, and such 
action not be voluntary or deliberate. With 
the development of rational intelligence the 
instincts weaken and the will takes control. 
Instinctive movements are the raw materials 
of voluntary action. 

Development ot Wilt 

A creature of impulses and instincts, the 
child reaches eventually a situation in which 
more than one response is possible. An object 
or situation may present a threatening as- 
pect. The instinct of fear would prompt 
to flight, that of curiosity to remain and 
explore. Deliberation ensues, and eventually 
a choice is made, and in this unrecorded 
moment that wonderful power of the mind 
takes its beginning which may later direct a 
railroad system or change the map of a con- 
tinent. 

Volition is the regulation of impulses. Out 
of the choas of random and aimless move- 
ments it brings the beauty and strength of a 
well-ordered life. With the continued ex^ 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 195 

ercise of choice and the development of will, 
the power of impulse and instinct weakens, 
and these lose themselves in habits. 

Will Result of Organization 

Voluntary action looks both backward and 
forward. Its constituent elements are de- 
liberation and choice. Deliberation is the 
product of past experience; choice involves 
the idea of some future good. The sight of 
food is followed by an impulse to eat it. On 
hearing the band play, something strongly 
moves us to go around the corner to see the 
procession. The present impulse takes its 
place in a continuous experience. We as- 
sociate it with past sickness from inoppor- 
tune eating, or past mortification from class- 
room failure, and often by a glance into 
the future prefer to abstain from the food 
for the sake of health, and to refrain from 
following the band in order to make certain 
our lesson preparation. The boy who can 
look ahead through the toils of student life 
to the honors of graduation, a remunerative 
situation, and a position of honor and in- 
fluence, will be more likely to continue to 
the end of his course. 



196 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

Will power is the power to look ahead. 
A strong will implies the power to look at 
actions not as disconnected units but as an 
organic system of means and ends in which 
is fulfiled the ultimate purpose in the mind 
of God, to which our every act is seen to bear 
a necessary relation. The martyr looks out 
into the life to come and willingly suffers 
death. 

Definition 

The will is the self consciously and pur- 
posely directing itself. The soul not only 
knows and feels, but also acts for an end. It 
is not a force outside of or independent of 
the self, but it is the self in purposive action. 
As the soul exercises itself in willing, it de- 
velops more and more in active power, and 
rises increasingly above the chance forces 
which induce to impulsive action, and be- 
comes less and less the sport of changing 
circumstances. Sustained and self-directed 
activity, work and not play, is the explana- 
tion of human progress. 

Analysis of Wills 

A girl leaves her recreation of Saturday 
afternoon and proceeds to study her Sunday- 



WILt, HABIT AND CHARACTER 197 

school lesson for the morrow. What are the 
steps involved? 

1. Feeling of more or less discomfort at 
the thought of her ignorance of the Bible, 
or the prospect of failure to make a good 
showing, or to meet the expectation of her 
teacher. 

2. Feeling of pleasure in the idea of the 
superiority of the self in possession of the 
knowledge of the lesson. 

3. Feeling of desire to realize the ideal 
of the self, the consideration of which gives 
pleasure. 

4. Deliberation. This is an act of judg- 
ment, which weighs the two alternatives — 
present pleasure in recreation and ultimate 
loss, or present study and ultimate satisfac- 
tion for duly done. 

5. Choice in which she positively and 
fully identifies herself with all the conse- 
quences of lesson preparation. 

6. Action. With Bible, commentary, and 
reference book, she works till her task is 
done. 

Weak Wills 

From the analysis of will it appears that 



198 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

a weak will may be accounted for in several 
ways: 

1. Lack of strong active impulses. This 
condition is due sometimes to bodily weak- 
ness and low physical vitality. The child of 
active temperament is hopeful material for a 
strong will, and has the advantage in this 
respect over the child of intellectual or 
emotional temperament. 

2. Weakness of memory, of the power to 
recall past acts and their consequences. Or 
one may not be able to imagine himself in- 
volved in the consequences of the act to 
which he is solicited, 

3. Weakness of desire. Desire accompa- 
nies ideas. Many have no desire for a knowl- 
edge of the Bible because they have no idea 
of the book as a wonderful literary master- 
piece, a unique history, a philosophy of life, 
or a transformer of character. To desire or 
crave an orange we must have an idea of 
what it is. 

Again desire is weak through a failure to 
believe that the object is attainable. No one 
can really desire to fly like a bird because he 
believes it impossible. Some fail in their de- 
sire to be a Christian through failure to be- 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 199 

lieve themselves included in the invitation 
or provisions. 

4. Weak intellect. He may not have the 
power of connected thought, little power of 
the association of ideas, of building up ideas 
into long trains or complex groups. Delib- 
eration and choice require this power. Weak 
will is due also to mental indolence. 

Witt Culture 

We asked a boy of nine one night how 
many good and useful things he had done 
that day out of his own free will and choice. 
He promptly and frankly answered, "Not 
one." He had gone uncomplainingly to school 
and had done his work cheerfully. We asked 
further, "Did you not study to-day because 
you enjoyed it?" He replied, "I was afraid 
of the teacher." His well-regulated . activ- 
ities were evidently directed by others and 
he was yet weak in will. A little later, while 
on the street alone, the same boy was over- 
taken by an older boy acquaintance who 
suggested that they go into a questionable 
place of amusement, and the older boy of- 
fered to pay his way. Curiosity to see what 
was inside, fear to offend his older compan- 



200 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ion, the example of others going in — all were 
powerful solicitations; but he politely de- 
clined the invitation and continued on his 
way alone. Here we see will in the making. 
He chose to do what he thought was right, 
to keep his own self-respect, and for the love 
he had for those who loved him. If we are 
to do anything worth while for our pupils 
we must reach their wills, train them in self- 
direction, train them to make decisions and 
choices for the right, in spite of solicitations, 
away from us, alone, in the dark. 

Means of Training 

The starting-point is a bundle of im- 
pulses, the goal a well-ordered life devoted to 
the will of God. 

1. Exercise the impulses. Instead of at- 
tempting to eradicate them, regulate them 
in orderly programs. Plan much to do. Do 
not plan for a child the work or ways of a 
man, but let all things be done orderly. 

2. Enrich the intellect. Store the mind 
with ideas. Let them be well-connected and 
organized. Set forth conduct in its rela- 
tions and ideals. Find standards of value 
in the conduct of Bible characters. Discover 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 201 

with the class that the Bible is the great 
authority on behavior. Build into the child- 
mind the great ideas of resistance to tempta- 
tion, sacrifice, service. 

3. Stimulate desire. Set forth the life of 
Christ, dominated by a settled purpose, as 
the perfect life. Make the life free from the 
insanity of sin seem desirable. Make appear 
the patient, purposeful life of service at- 
tractive. Make prominent the joys of salva- 
tion. Dwell on the present pleasures of sal- 
vation and the rewards eternal. 

4. Urge the matter of choices. The habit 
of too prolonged deliberation paralyzes the 
will. Consider fully, then decide. Urge your 
pupils to choose Christ. Urge immediate de- 
cision. The sad result of postponing de- 
cision, after the judgment is convinced, is 
moral atrophy and paralysis. 

5. Follow choice by action. Impress the 
pupil with the value of the prompt doing 
of unpleasant things after reason has shown 
the way. The Sunday-school teacher should 
urge the pupils to begin at once the perform- 
ance of the Christian virtues, the exercises 
of public worship and private devotion. The 
lapsing of religious life usually begins in 



202 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

failure to do the things intended, and recog- 
nized as duty. 

Will and Character 

Single acts of will harden into habits of 
will. The sum total of our habits of will 
constitute our character. A cutivated power 
of self-direction is strong character. Charac- 
ter is another name for power and efficiency. 
What we are, what our pupils are, is oU 
supreme importance, as what we are fixes 
what we shall be. Character determines 
destiny. 

Training of the Will 

The power of the will, then, is the power 
of self-direction. To train the will of pupils 
is to secure in them the power of sustained 
effort to the attainment of a future goal, to 
subordinate the lower to the higher impulses, 
to resist temptation, and to lead them to self- 
control. To do this is eminent service and is 
to attain the end of all education. 

Desire 

The training of the will involves, first, the 
development of desire. We must want to do 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 203 

a thing before we can will to do it. The 
strength of will is measured by the strength 
of desire. Desire is the craving unrest for 
an object which we believe will give us pleas- 
urable satisfaction and in its relation to the 
will is fundamental. 

An Illustration 

The will to secure an education depends 
upon the creating of a desire for it. The fol- 
lowing method might be followed in creating 
in the mind of a youth such a desire. A 
teacher would recall some past occasions 
when the young man failed to secure a lucra- 
tive position through lack of qualifications, 
or some other embarrassing experience due 
to lack of knowledge or culture. He would 
refer also to the satisfaction which would 
result from the education — a better salary, 
a wider influence, more friends, greater 
power, or fame, or ability to do good. The 
teacher would picture the youth in the pul- 
pit, on the judge's bench, or in the professor's 
chair. He would awaken feeling by appeal- 
ing to the love of friends, or to the love of 
parents, or to the disastrous consequences of 
failure to reach up to his possibilities. The 



20i THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

desire would be further strengthened by the 
recital of examples of those who persevered 
through college and became eminent. From 
such a presentation of considerations, it is 
likely that the desire for an education will 
be implanted or re-enforced. In the creation 
of desire there is involved the processes of 
memory and imagination, feeling, and a clear 
idea of the objects, the lack of which gives 
him pain and prospective realization of which 
fills him with genuine pleasure. 

The creation and strengthening of desire 
proceed according to well-defined principles, 
and the teacher who understands these will 
succeed, where others fail, in helping his pu- 
pils to desire the very best. 

Deliberate Choice 

The training of the will involves also the 
cultivation of the power of choice. Desire 
is a tension of the mind caused by a consid- 
eration of two or more possible objects of 
choice. An act of will implies the careful 
weighing of the various desirabilities and 
finally accepting one to the exclusion of the 
rest. The act of choice identifies one's self 
with a particular object and the acts required 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 205 

to secure it. The choice of an education iden- 
tifies one with the superior knowledge and 
all the effort necessary to acquire it. The 
act of choice is followed by the actual effort 
to secure the object. 

Cautions 

The teacher should see that the mind of 
the pupil does not remain in a state of desire. 
Desire that does not pass on to choice degen- 
erates into fruitless wishing. He should see 
also that the youth develops the disposition 
to deliberate and thus avoid the evils of im- 
pulsive action. On the other hand, he must 
warn against too prolonged deliberation. If 
the judgment is too long suspended, it tends 
to habitual indecision and weakness of char- 
acter. Also, when the act of choice is once 
determined upon, action should not be de- 
ferred. 

The most important choice which the 
teacher has the opportunity of urging is that 
of accepting Christ and entering upon a 
Christian life. In doing so, he should pre- 
sent the highest motives and appeal to the 
noblest aspirations. He should be such an 
example of the superiority of Christian char- 



206 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

acter that the memory of his words and life 
will keep alive in every pupil's heart a strong 
desire to be right with God even in strong 
temptations and after the lapse of many 
years. 

Habit 

In studying will and action, we come upon 
a law of our being that is full of significance 
for every individual. It is of especial im- 
portance to the teacher. We refer to the law 
of habit. 

The Law Stated 

An action once performed tends to repeat 
itself. Habit is the tendency for one to act 
as he has acted before. This tendency, weak 
and imperceptible at first, is later strong and 
irresistible. It enables one to perform the 
customary acts of life with machine-like reg- 
ularity. By the age of thirty he has fashioned 
the grooves in which his life will run. From 
this time, says one, ninety-nine one hundreths 
of all a man does he does automatically. 
"The character has set like plaster, and will 
never soften again." 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 207 

Formation of Habit 

Some habits are formed unconsciously. 
They grow out of our work or the necessities 
of our lives. Others come from specific acts 
of will. First efforts are made with diffi- 
culty: they require attention and constant 
putting forth of will. Later it is necessary 
only to start the process and it moves onward 
to the end automatically. 

However formed, they control us. Body 
and mind conspire to make this law effective. 
Habit releases attention and conscious effort, 
and helps us to do things almost without 
thinking. It also modifies nerve structures 
and writes itself in every organ and tissue 
of the body. The end of education and train- 
ing is the systematic formation of good 
habits. 

Habits are formed by repetition of a spe- 
cific act of will. The first efforts to play the 
piano require constant attention and contin- 
ual putting forth of will. Later it becomes 
mechanical and in the case even of a difficult 
selection, there is required only an initial act 
of will to start the process and melody fol- 
lows almost automatically until the end is 
reached. 



208 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

"Habit is the tissue of life." The kind of 
habits determines the quality of the tissue 
and the character of the life. The culture 
and power of an individual are an indication 
of the extent to which his life has become 
automatic. The man who has made the high- 
est attainments in character and action is 
the one with the most habit of the best kind. 

In Sunday-school 

In a short session on one day in seven, 
what can a teacher do to inculcate good 
habit? In a year he will have the opportu- 
nity to reiterate the importance and insist 
upon the observance of certain cardinal prin- 
ciples. It may be the habit of sacredly re- 
garding religious truth, and the more homely 
virtues of punctuality and promptness. Is it 
too much to expect that the Sunday-school 
may become a training school in the habit of 
thoroughness and regularity? 

Formation ot Good Habits 

The following are the maxims given by 
Professor James for the acquisition of good 
habits : 

1. We must take care to launch ourselves 



WILL, HABIT AND CHARACTER 209 

with as strong and decided initiative as 
possible. 

2. Never suffer an exception to occur till 
the new habit is securely rooted in your life. 

3. Seize the first possible opportunity to 
act upon every resolution you make and on 
every emotional prompting you may experi- 
ence in the direction of the habits you aspire 
to gain. 

4. Don't preach too much to your pupils 
or abound in good talk in the abstract. 

5. Keep the faculty of effort alive within 
you by a little gratuitous exercise every day. 



XVII. 

THE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHER 

"Preparation for a work should be made 
in proportion to the importance of the work. 
It takes but little time to learn to shovel 
dirt into a cart, but it takes years and pa- 
tience to plan a cathedral. Yet the planning 
of cathedrals is meager in importance to that 
of building character." 

Necessity for Preparation 

Whatever qualities of mind or manner one 
may possess, ability, tact, or charm, what- 
ever his attainments spiritually, these do not 
excuse him from preparation, if he is to 
teach. Preparation, general and special, is 
necessary to beget in the teacher that confi- 
dence and assurance he ought to have in 
standing before his class. He may have 
taught the lesson a dozen times, but each 
new opportunity requires new preparation. 

210 



THE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHER 211 

Such leadership inspires confidence in his pu- 
pils. They follow him gladly, with interest 
and enthusiasm, because they believe he 
knows where he is going, and that the jour- 
ney will be one of pleasure and profit. 

Hon> to Prepare 

In making preparation one may ask him- 
self first of all, What am I to attempt as I 
stand before my class? What is the pur- 
pose of this lesson? What is it designed to 
teach? Let him get an answer to this ques- 
tion and have it definite. What central truth 
shall I teach, what final impression shall I 
leave? With this end in view let him pre- 
pare a plan and follow it. Thus he will es- 
cape aimless digressions. To float on the 
current of desultory discussion is not teach- 
ing. The next step is the collection of ma- 
terials to carry out the plan. 

Facts 

The first work in the gathering of ma- 
terials is to get the facts of the lesson. This 
will necessitate the reading and study of the 
entire chapter, section, or book. Read all 
the scripture text — parallel and related 



212 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

passages. The accumulation of facts will 
make you an accurate student and an inter- 
esting teacher. Let your preparation rest on 
a broad and comprehensive knowledge of in- 
ter-related facts rather than upon theories 
and opinions elaborated from isolated texts. 

The Lesson Setting 

This may be secured, first, by a study of 
the chronological facts. Careful considera- 
tion of the time order is very fruitful in 
studying the life of Christ, the journeys of 
Paul, or the lives of the kings or the 
prophets. 

Secondly, locate the places on the map. 
The accurate location of places will give the 
lesson reality. Biblical knowledge will soon 
evaporate unless associated with places read- 
ily located. 

Thirdly, get the local coloring. Study 
oriental life, ancient and modern, until the 
facts of the lesson seem true to life and real 
events, participated in by real persons. A 
Sunday-school teacher should own, and al- 
ways use, a reference Bible, and have easy 
access to a concordance, a good Bible dic- 
tionary, and a reliable commentary. 



THE PREPARATION OP THE TEACHER 213 

The Lesson Plan 

Devote five or ten minutes in your teach- 
ing plan to the setting. "Next determine the 
central truth of the lesson, and study how 
to make it plain. Reinforce it with the cen^ 
tral truths of the other lessons which have 
been studied. Lastly make a concrete appli- 
cation. The lesson is not to be studied mere- 
ly as an interesting bit of history; it is to 
be studied to teach the student the great 
laws of human conduct and of human des- 
tiny. The teacher must determine how much 
time he is to give to the closing application. 
When there are illustrations to be thought 
out and sought out, questions to be planned, 
methods to be considered, the teacher who 
comes before his class with such a plan will 
teach vitally. He will be a living fountain 
— abundant, sparkling, refreshing." 

Special Preparation 

A teacher must make preparation that is 
not only comprehensive and full, but he 
must prepare also with reference to the spe- 
cial needs of the members of the class. They 
come in each Sunday morning from different 
conditions of home life, with different tern- 



214 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

peraments, temptations, hopes, and aspire 
tions. The teacher will need to bring to one 
an arrow of conviction, to another a lesson 
of comfort or hope or trust. Hence he must 
teach every Sunday with an object in view, 
and plan his lesson for individual needs. 

Special preparation will require special 
prayer. The teacher will need to pray for 
his class, member by member. He must pray 
until their needs are real to him. He must 
pray until he carries a burning interest in 
the temporal and spiritual welfare of each 
pupil. He must pray until it begets in him 
a strong desire to supply a helpful ministry. 
And finally, he must pray until the lesson 
comes to his own heart with freshness and 
power. And with truth gripping his own 
heart, with a deeper consecration, a stronger 
love, a more buoyant faith, and a richer joy, 
he may go before his class with strong as- 
surance of divine approval, "a workman that 
needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing 
the word of truth." 

The Different Grades 

The teacher of each grade must prepare to 
meet the needs of the various ages. The pri- 



THE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHER 215 

mary teacher must plan her object lessons, 
select the memory passages, movement exer- 
cises, and stories. Telling stories well is an 
art that can be cultivated. Tell the stories 
over several times to a chair during the week. 
Practise will do wonders in word-painting. 

The teacher of the juniors must prepare in 
such a way as to interest or he will be a con- 
spicuous failure. Lectures on doctrine and 
exposition will not appeal to them. He must 
know them and the world in which they live. 

The teacher for intermediates must keep in 
mind the peculiar needs of that age and pre- 
pare accordingly. Thus every age as well as 
every lesson has its problem "requiring orig- 
inality for its solution, and careful planning 
for its application." 

The teachers who succeed are the teachers 
who prepare. They do not depend upon the 
inspiration of the moment, upon lucky an- 
swers or brilliant impromptu, to carry them 
through, or a hasty glance at the lesson on 
Saturday night or Sunday morning; but 
they remember that "for the exhibition days 
of Providence there is no hasty retrieving of 
a wasted term by a stealthy study on the eve 
of examination." 



XVIII. 

PEINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 

The data of psychology contained in the 
foregoing chapters on the intellectual ac- 
tivities, the feelings, and the will, give us 
the general laws of soul development. Upon 
these rest the following general principles of 
teaching : 

Teaching EductiVe, not Creative 

All the activities of the soul exist in the 
child at birth. But they exist only in germ. 
Their development is the work of education. 
Teaching creates nothing. It only assists 
in unfolding what is wrapped up in the 
nature of the soul. 

Graded Instruction 

True teaching is directed to the nutrition 
of those activities which are at the time most 
active. They do not all start out at the same 



PRINCIPLES OP TEACHING 217 

time. As each new possibility manifests it- 
self, nourish it with especial care. When 
memory is at flood-tide, exercise it to the 
limit; later on pay more attention to reason- 
ing. 

Exercise 

True teaching secures activity in the 
pupils' minds. Exercise is the law of 
growth. Muscle grows strong by exercise. 
The arm of a blacksmith acquires power by 
use. So every power of the mind is devel- 
oped, strengthened, and matured, by exer- 
cise. Soul power is not an accretion, 
something plastered on; it grows from with- 
in. The class period is not the time for the 
teacher to exploit his learning or his accom- 
plishments. To lecture is not always to 
stimulate thought. The former is infinitely 
easier than the latter. The great teachers 
are those who have assisted their students to 
bring thought to the birth. Induce the class 
to ask questions, express opinions, tell the 
lesson story, and settle things for them- 
selves. The Great Teacher said, "Which 
now, thinkest thou, was neighbor unto him 
that fell among thieves?" And when His 



218 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

pupil had thought and made reply, He said, 
"Go, and do thou likewise." The father who 
holds the board while his son drives the nails 
may spoil a board or two but he is making 
the boy. Of how much more value are boys 
than boards? The perpetual question for the 
teacher is, "How can I make my pupils 
think; how can I make them feel and do?" 

Accommodation 

True teaching discriminates in the pre- 
sentation of teaching material. A child 
does not grow by forcing food down his 
throat. The fact of an appetite makes this 
unnecessary. The person does not exist who 
does not have some kind of mental appetite. 
Children have strong appetites for stories, 
their grandfathers for doctrines. Good 
teaching is largely a matter of presenting 
the right material in right quantities at the 
right time. Then response is certain and 
growth inevitable. 

From Concrete to Abstract 

True teaching proceeds from the concrete 
to the abstract. The child's world is a world 
of concrete things — of objects, acts, and 



PRINCIPLES OP TEACHING 219 

qualities. Objects produce in the mind 
ideas, and ideas call for words to name them. 
The order is objects, ideas, words. In the 
primary grades teaching must begin with 
objects; later, when ideas and words and 
things have become thoroughly associated, 
the teaching process may be by words and 
the elaboration of ideas. Reason deals with 
the relation of ideas. Begin with a biog- 
raphy, a narrative, a history; with Moses, 
David, and John; and later take account of 
the higher thinking activities and emphasize 
in your teaching the abstract qualities of 
meekness, courage, and love. 

Professor Brumbaugh gives two illustra- 
tions of teaching that brings out this point. 
"Teacher A says, 'Children, it is noble, good 
and grand to be kind and helpful to those 
in need. This is all the more true when the 
person is a cripple. I want you to remem- 
ber this, and always try to be on the lookout 
for chances to render such aid.' Teacher B 
says, 'Children, one cold Sunday morning in 
December, when the pavements were icy and 
dangerous, an old man was slowly making 
his way to church. He was a cripple. He 
trembled as he leaned on his crutch and cane. 



220 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

At the steps to his church he set his crutch 
and came upon the icy stone and endeavored 
to lift his weak and trembling body to the 
next step. His crutch slipped on the ice. He 
almost fell. Thus several times he did his best 
to enter his church. Each time he slipped and 
with pain recovered himself. Just then a 
college boy came that way. He saw the old 
man in his struggles and, hurrying forward, 
put his arms gently around the poor cripple, 
lifted him carefully to the vestibule, opened 
the door, set the old man down, and walked 
hastily away. Tell me, children, what do you 
think of the college boy? Tell me also, if 
you care to, what would you have done if you 
had been there.' " U ^ 1 

Compare this illustration with the method 
of Jesus with the lawyer who asked, "Who 
is my neighbor ?" 

From Known to Unknown 

True teaching proceeds from the known to 
the unknown. A fact may be clear to the 
teacher, but unless it touches the child some- 
where in his personal experience it has no 
meaning to him. What has been a part of 
the child's experience the rather excites his 



PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 221 

interest and therefore becomes a starting- 
point from which, to follow a line of thought. 
Find the pupil's point of contact with the 
world of sense or knowledge, and in your 
teaching start there, and lead by simple steps 
to the understanding of the new. To teach 
the lesson of faith in God, begin in the 
child's trust in his father; of Christ the 
good Shepherd, from his knowledge of sheep. 

Repetition 

True teaching recognizes that retention 
depends upon constant repetition. Impres- 
sions upon the mind deepen by repeating. 
Repeating facts, scripture passages, sum- 
maries, and classifications are essential if 
the lessons are to become permanent posses- 
sions of the pupil. We would teach not for 
a day, but make our impressions of truth 
indelible. Use different plans and methods 
of review. Have a rapid review each Sun- 
day. Be a drill master. See that your 
pupils know some things well. 



XIX. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 

Educational principles are unchangeable. 
They are the same in every land and in every 
age. They may be discovered, but not in- 
vented. Educational methods are more flex- 
ible. They rest upon educational principles, 
and grow out of the tact, originality, ingenu- 
ity, and skill of the teacher. Out of the 
thoughtful experience of the most success- 
ful teachers have come certain methods 
which are recognized as of prime importance. 
The existence of normal schools and normal 
training classes suggests that the educa- 
tional process may be learned. Without a 
knowledge of the best methods teaching is 
wasteful — wasteful of time, wasteful of en- 
ergy, and awfully wasteful of material. He 
who works with souls should know his art 
more thoroughly than he who fashions 
diamonds. 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 223 

Mow to Conduct a Class 

There are five methods usually employed: 
1. The story method. This is the method 
for the primary classes. The teacher tells 
the lesson story and illustrates it. The les- 
son stories should be complete in including a 
whole life or a whole event or a whole book. 
Let the story lead up gradually to the cli- 
max. Keep the story moving by keeping 
close to the doings and sayings of the actors. 
A story must not drag from too much detail. 
The point should be very clear, so clear that 
the student can make the application him- 
self. 

A story-teller must cultivate the visualiz- 
ing power so that he can see and feel the ac- 
tual situation of the story. Sometimes he 
must adapt a story to special needs and spe- 
cial occasions. This involves the shortening 
in some places and filling in and expanding 
in others. His preparation will largely con- 
sist in practising the stories beforehand. The 
masters of this art have not been afraid to 
practise a story a dozen times in their rooms 
before trying to tell it to their class. Thor- 
ough familiarity is the secret of readiness 
and dramatic power. When you find an ef- 



224 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

fective story use it frequently. The story 
method can be used to some extent with 
classes of all grades. Who does not like to 
hear a story well told? What is more inter- 
esting than the Bible stories of David, Moses, 
Daniel, Job, Samuel, Mordecai, and the 
prodigal son? 

To know how to tell a story well is re- 
garded by some as the most important quali- 
fication for teaching children. Stories are 
the way to their mind and heart. He must 
know this great art who would enter in. 

2. The recitation method. This presup- 
poses the assignment of specific tasks and the 
recitation either oral or written. It implies 
a text-book, either the Bible or parts of the 
same. The object of this method is to induce 
previous study on the part of the pupil. The 
work of the teacher by this method is not so 
much giving instruction as hearing recita- 
tion. 

This method is good with juniors and in- 
termediates, in storing their minds with Bi- 
ble facts. It is used to secure memorization 
of sections of scripture, facts of Bible geog- 
raphy and history. To induce pupils to home 
study, be very definite in the lesson assign- 



METHODS OP INSTRUCTION 225 

ment. Call for the recitation of the assigned 
portions and commend the good work. Do 
not expect too much. 

The preparation of good outlines in ad- 
vance is helpful. Let the outline for a quar- 
ter include a definite number of passages of 
scripture, certain hymns, historical data, and 
geography work to be memorized. A public 
concert exercise at the end of the quarter 
helps to stimulate interest and keep up en- 
thusiasm. This method is of great value in 
the hands of an honest teacher, but is easily 
abused. 

3. The conversation method. This meth- 
od substitutes extempore questioning and 
discussion for assigned work. It consists of 
asking suggestive questions so that the pupil 
may discover truth for himself. It stimu- 
lates mental alertness and activity. This is 
teaching of the highest type. It is the meth- 
of Jesus and of Socrates. It demands skill 
in asking questions. The teacher must have 
an objective point, and select questions that 
will lead to the end in view. In preparing 
to teach the lesson on "Paul and Silas in the 
Philippian jail," he might consider the fol- 
lowing as proper questions: Have you ever 



226 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

visited a jail? Why do we have jails? Tell 
of a visit to a penitentiary. Did you ever 
know of any person sent to jail? Why were 
Paul and Silas in Philippi? Were they dis- 
turbing the peace? Had they committed any 
crime? Did you ever see a fortune-teller? 
-How did the preaching of Paul affect the 
business of fortune-telling? What businesses 
do you think the gospel would interfere 
with? Does it stop God's work to imprison 
and silence His workers? 

Recall the life of Bunyan. Does God care 
for His own? Refer to Daniel, Peter. What 
may we expect if we are true to God? Will 
it pay? 

The great defect in this method is the 
teacher's lack of preparation, and the conse- 
quent drifting of the discussion into idle and 
fruitless wanderings. 

4. The lecture method. Here the teacher 
instructs by conveying information and ma- 
king direct application of the truths of the 
lesson. He uses the scripture set for the 
lesson as a text and delivers a lecture ser- 
mon. With large classes this method is used 
to good advantage, as well as with pupils 
who can not or will not take time for prep- 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 227 

aration. A teacher of such a class needs, in 
addition to a ready knowledge of the Bible, 
and familiarity with the principles of ex- 
egesis, to be a fluent speaker and a man of 
wide reading and broad knowledge. Thia» 
method is popular and much used, but as no 
study is required very little permanent re- 
sults are secured. 

5. The seminar method. By this method 
students investigate topics of study set by 
the teacher. The topics constitute a course. 
It appeals to mature students who have ac- 
cess to a good library and who are possessed 
of the investigating spirit. It requires a 
thoroughly trained teacher. There is noth- 
ing more delightful and permanently useful 
than an extended course by this method on 
some subject like Old Testament Prophecy, 
the Early Christian Church, or the Epistles 
of Paul. 

6. The combined method. It is probable 
that the best success is by the use of al* 
these methods. The successful teacher as- 
signs lessons, calls for recitation, assigns 
topics, calls forth opinions from members of 
the class, gives illustrations, and sums up 
the lesson in a final appeal. A method which 



228 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

will secure home study, and combine instruc- 
tion and recitation will be most satisfactory 
in most instances. 

A Good Teaching Plan 

One of the best methods of teaching the 
lesson is known as Herbart's method. This 
method is based upon the laws of mind, and 
finds endorsement by many authorities on 
method. This teaching plan falls into five 
logical subdivisions or steps, each having a 
part in realizing the purpose of the lesson: 

1. Preparation. The purpose of this step 
is to revive in the pupil's mind whatever 
ideas he may have regarding the lesson under 
consideration. It does not have to do with 
the personal study of the teacher but with the 
preparation of the class for the reception of 
the new truth. To do this the teacher must 
have an acquaintance with the pupils — their 
reading, experiences, their interests — so that 
he may know what these ideas are. These 
ideas may be drawn from previous lessons, 
or may be material which has never been 
used in the class before. 

In preparing for the lesson, "Paul at Phil- 
ippi," the teacher may ask, "Where did we 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 229 

leave Paul last Sunday?" or "What places 
have been touched by Paul thus far on his 
second missionary journey ?" Or he might 
recall to the class the work of Livingstone 
and Stanley in opening up Africa, or show 
that great movements sometimes have appar- 
ently insignificant beginnings. 

Familiar ideas constitute the soil in which 
new ideas grow and germinate. They are 
the only soil in which the seeds of thought 
and truth will grow. No soil, no fruit. This 
step is based upon the educational principle, 
"from the known to the unknown." Be sure 
that the ideas recalled are really similar to 
the ideas you wish to teach, and do not let 
the first step consume too much time or run 
into irrelevant channels. This step ends by 
calling attention to the fact that from the 
student's standpoint additional knowledge is 
desirable. "We must see now how the gos- 
pel seed grew on European soil," or "Paul 
was expelled from Antioch, assaulted at 
Iconium, stoned at Lystra; we must find out 
now whether his treatment at Philippi was 
more encouraging." 

2. Presentation. In this step we get the 
new material of the lesson for the day be- 



230 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

fore the class. We bring the new and place 
it beside the old which was called up in the 
"preparation." 

The method will vary with the different 
ages. With the primaries the new material 
will be presented by stories, with the juniors 
and intermediates by question and answer, 
and with the adults by the combination 
method of recitation and lecture. Make the 
presentation vivid by keeping close to the 
facts. Weave in a wealth of detail, and em- 
ploy a lively manner. This is the place for 
facts and plenty of them and for the use of 
objects, maps, pictures, and models. 

If the lesson is on the "Biot at Ephesus,' , 
the teacher will bring out the chief facts re- 
garding the size, importance, and history of 
Ephesus; the ancestors, intelligence, and 
occupations of the inhabitants; the temple 
of Diana — its history and wealth. Locate 
Ephesus on the map and exhibit some speci- 
men images or pictures of the temple of 
Diana and the shrines. Present in detail the 
seizing of Paul's companions, the great con- 
fusion, and the speech of the town clerk. 
Draw out by questions what knowledge the 



METHODS OP INSTRUCTION 231 

pupils have, and supplement it by additional 
information. 

3. Association. This step involves the 
relating, connecting, or interweaving of the 
new facts with the old. The new facts un- 
related would have no value for memory or 
comprehension. We recall at this point that 
knowledge is a web. The new must be knit 
up or woven into the old or it will be lost. 
The new is therefore associated with other 
facts and ideas, and relations are discovered 
and emphasized. This is the place for illus- 
trations and comparisons. The teacher 
must be continually in search of good illus- 
trations. Here is where the teacher of wide 
general knowledge has the advantage. He 
can draw from many sources for his illus- 
trative material. 

In teaching the last lesson referred to we 
compare the antagonism to Paul of the mas- 
ters of the soothsayer at Philippi with that 
of the silversmiths at Ephesus; Paul's rela- 
tion to civil authority on various occasions j 
his courage in different places; how the up- 
roar raised by the enemies of the gospel in 
various localities widened the sphere of its 
influence. 



232 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

4. Generalization. If the foregoing steps 
have been well taken, this step is natural 
and easy. It consists of drawing a general 
principle from the individual facts which 
have been treated in the presentation and 
association. The pupil should draw the con- 
clusion for himself, and state it in his own 
words. The teacher can then restate it more 
clearly if necessary. Generalization will be 
in the form of judgments. They should be 
short and clear. For example, "The gospel 
faithfully preached stirred the opposition of 
wicked men." "The religion of Jesus dis- 
turbs false religions." 

Generalization is the step that gathers up 
the rays of lesson teaching and brings them 
to a burning focus of general truth, in which 
form knowledge is held in memory and is 
ready to be applied. 

5. Application. Generalization leaves us 
with a general law. But knowledge to be of 
value must be applied. Application carries 
the law into the field of practise. The teacher 
should take this final step so that the pupil 
will not only assent to the truth, but feel it, 
and feel it in such a way that it moves him 
to action. The truth must be applied so that 



METHODS OP INSTRUCTION 233 

it stirs the conscience, moves the will, and 
becomes a controlling principle in the life. 

To make effective application, the teacher 
must know intimately his pupils, their needs, 
their struggles, their aspirations. Launched 
by a man who is sincere, who teaches out of 
a heart of sympathy and love and under the 
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, the applica- 
tion comes with moving energy and great 
power. 

If forty minutes were given to the lesson 
period, the time might be allowed to the dif- 
ferent steps as follows: preparation, five 
minutes; presentation, fifteen minutes; as- 
sociation, ten minutes; generalization, five 
minutes; application, five minutes. Some- 
times the last three steps are combined with 
the second, the final appeal being reserved 
for the close. 

The Use of Illustration 

We have seen from the third step of Her- 
bart's plan of teaching how important is the 
law of association. As the teacher presents 
new ideas to the class, if they are to become 
the permanent possession of the pupils, he 
must establish associations and relations be- 



234 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

tween the new ideas and those already 
known and mastered. To establish these as- 
sociations between the new and the old the 
teacher collects and uses illustrations. 

Illustration Explained 

Our experience is with a world of things 
— with objects of sense; with coins, sheep, 
roads, trees, seed, food, and other concrete 
material. Our knowledge is made up largely 
of such concrete experiences. Truth, how- 
ever, is abstract. To understand abstract 
truth it must be comprehended in terms of 
the concrete. The teacher brings in the new 
idea or truth from the dark region of un- 
known knowledge, and illuminates it in the 
focus of light gathered from the common, 
every-day, familiar experience of the pupil. 

Doctor Trumbull quotes an illustration 
which sets in the light of the familiar the 
abstract truth of Paul's teaching that we are 
saved by faith and also by grace : "A man has 
fallen from the deck of a moving steamer. 
The captain instantly orders the engines 
stopped ; a boat is lowered ; a rope is thrown 
to the struggling man; the man clutches at 
the rope; he is saved — saved by the loving- 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 235 

kindness of the captain; saved also by his 
clutching at the proffered rope." 

Definition 

To illustrate is to make lustrous; to make 
clear or comprehensible through compari- 
sons and examples. Illustrative material is 
usually stories, parables, similes, and figures 
of speech. 

A Caution 

In the use of illustrations care must be 
taken that the story or simile really sheds 
light rather than shadows it. After some 
effort to illustrate the words of our Lord, 
"By their fruits ye shall know them," a par- 
ent succeeded only as follows: "By what 
does Jesus say we may know people?" "By 
their fruits." "What do you mean by their 
fruits?" "Apples and pears." 

Trumbull's "Teaching and Teachers" gives 
a good example of an unsuccessful effort to 
use illustration. A clergyman was explain- 
ing in an address to children, that Christian 
ministers are the salt of the earth. After he 
had shown the value of salt in its power to 
keep food from spoiling, he told how minis- 
ters aided in preserving the world from cor- 



236 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ruption. He concluded by asking, "Why 
then are ministers the salt of the earth?" 
and received the suggestive answer, "Be- 
cause they keep victuals from spoiling." 

Importance of Illustration 

The old lady who said she enjoyed best the 
"likes" of Scripture is not alone in her pref- 
erence for simile and parable. We all like 
the parables of Jesus, and never get too old 
to appreciate the illustrations in sermon or 
address. Good illustration aids in securing 
attention. A short story finds its place in 
the lesson introduction. Illustration sustains 
attention. It rests the reasoning faculties. 
It stimulates the imagination, and develops 
the power of memory. Illustration also 
arouses conscience, as it makes truth that 
pertains to duty and destiny blaze and burn 
in the red light of a sinful life. 

Jesus* Use of Illustration 

Jesus was continually using comparisons. 
How the truth of God's fatherly love is made 
lustrous in the parable of the Prodigal Son. 
In the story of the Marriage Feast how base 
and inexcusable it seems to ignore God's invi- 
tation and to reject His honor and blessing. 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 237 

Miss Slattery refers to Christ's use of illus- 
tration: "He was talking with shepherds. 
The roekj slopes, the thorns, the sheepfold 
with its ninety and nine, the missing one, 
the joy of friends when the shepherd, after 
weary hours of searching, returned bearing 
the lost one on his shoulders, were all famil- 
iar. They made a well-defined group of asso- 
ciated ideas. Into this group Christ intro- 
duces the new idea, 'As the friends of the 
shepherd rejoice with great joy over the find- 
ing of the sheep, so the angels of heaven re- 
joice over one sinner that repents/ 

"One day He walked through a vineyard. 
It was- in good condition, the vines trimmed 
and pruned; here and there were large clus- 
ters of grapes, and He taught His disciples : 
'I am like the vine, you are like the branches. 
The branch separated from the vine is use- 
less; it can never bear fruit; it is thrown 
into the fire and burned. Neither can you do 
anything apart from me; you must abide in 
me if you would live and bring forth fruit.' 
A simple, natural, powerful lesson. I am 
sure that scores of times in after years as the 
disciples passed the ripened clusters in the 
vineyard His words came back to them." 



CACHING SUGGESTIONS. 

Individuality 

Important as the study of psychology and 
child-study is, it is a mistake to suppose that 
a knowledge of these branches will insure 
good teaching. Any science is primarily gen- 
eral. It seeks the discovery and statement of 
general truths. The generalizations of child- 
study are important and useful. Pupils are 
seen to pass through certain well-defined 
stages and to possess certain characteristics, 
but a teacher must deal with individuals. 

Each pupil seems to be an exception to all 
the rules. He is a unit by himself. The aver- 
age child or normal pupil described in the 
books is not present. Child-study and the 
study of methods therefore are only a part 
of the preparation to the actual contact with 
real pupils. 

The Sunday-school teacher will need to 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 239 

make careful study of each individual child. 
There is something that attaches to each one 
which constitutes individuality. Each one 
is unique. Every pupil must be studied as a 
separate problem, and requires a separate 
treatment. It is impossible therefore to suc- 
ceed in trying to adapt truth to a class as a 
whole without knowing intimately the indi- 
vidual units. 

In order to reach the individual the class 
must be small. Adults seem to thrive in 
larger classes. With adults there is the en- 
thusiasm of members and the cohesive power 
of organization. But with younger pupils the 
small class — six or eight in number — should 
be the rule. In small classes the teacher can 
know each pupil as a friend, and secure in 
each those habits of thinking, feeling, and 
doing which each most needs. The personal 
touch is all-important in leading to a life of 
faith and love. It is the influence that comes 
from personal contact that leads to spiritual 
life and growth. 

The Point of Contact 

This expression is used to indicate the 
point at which the pupil's experience and the 



240 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

truth he is to learn come together. To truly 
know anything is to know it through a "self- 
active personal experience." Activity in the 
pupil is the law of the mental and the spirit- 
ual growth. To secure this activity the 
teacher must begin on the plane of the pupil's 
natural experience. He must commence in 
his teaching where the pupil touches life in 
concrete and objective experience. He must 
try to get the pupil's view-point and begin 
the lesson there. 

Patterson DuBois enunciates and applies 
this principle. A teacher was unexpectedly 
asked to teach a class of frisky boys. The 
lesson was on the Golden Rule. He found 
the point of contact with an ivory foot-rule, 
and from their knowledge and curiosity he 
led them on to the Golden Rule. "Golden 
texts, theological doctrines, ethical abstrac- 
tions, taken in themselves, would have been 
hurled at these bright minds in vain ; but the 
contact with a tangible rule such as a boy 
would use, or, at all events enjoys handling, 
was the successful departure for his spirit- 
ual instruction. The lesson developed nat- 
urally from the material to the moral rule." 

Miss Harrison tells of another teacher in 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 241 

a mission school who found the point of con- 
tact with a class of "toughs" in the blacking- 
box which one of the boys had, and was 
about to precipitate a row by using on an- 
other boy's nose. From the box the teacher 
led them on to the interesting facts of lumber 
manufacture and of logging-camps, from the 
nails to the mining and the working of ore; 
and after reaching the mysterious world be- 
yond their knowledge she secured in them a 
feeling of reverence and "built up in them an 
altar to the unknown God, which altar was 
necessary before the God of righteousness 
and of mercy and love could be preached 
unto them." 

"The Salvation Army reaches the outcasts 
of the slums not by a map of Palestine and 
the Catechism, but through that which is 
common in their experience — noise and 
racket, the bass drum and the brass horn." 
The loud music and the bright colors are the 
"lines of least resistance over which this 
species of human nature passes into the first 
contemplation of a clearer, better, and nobler 
life." A study of the teaching of Jesus shows 
the importance of this principle. In His par- 



242 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

ables He began on the plane of His hearers' 
experience. 

The Use of the Blackboard 

The use of the blackboard in teaching de- 
pends upon the principle that the eye is one 
of the chief senses in the acquisition of 
knowledge. For most persons visual images 
are more natural than auditory images. 
What can be imaged is more likely to be re- 
tained. Children need the use of this meth- 
od; adults are fond of it. Teachers use it 
constantly in the public schools. 

The blackboard is not so much for the dis- 
play of artistic talent, for carefully drawn 
pictures of landscapes, ships, trees, crosses, 
and anchors, but for work done rapidly in 
the presence of the school or class. The su- 
perintendent will find it a pleasure to use it 
in the lesson review. The lesson can usually 
be reduced to five or six words giving the 
very gist. These words printed in bold type 
may be the pegs on which to hang the les- 
sons of truth. It is not easy at first to talk 
and draw at the same time, but practise be- 
forehand will give confidence and skill. 

Some teachers find a small board useful 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 243 

for class work. It is indispensable for analy- 
ses, tabulations, drills, and reviews. The use 
of the blackboard never fails to secure at- 
tention; it stimulates the imagination and 
strengthens the memory. To omit its use is 
to neglect one of the greatest aids in impart- 
ing truth. 

The Teaching of Missions 

The teaching of missions is perhaps one of 
the most important problems which the mod- 
ern church has to face. And it is in the Sun- 
day-school — the church's most progressive or- 
ganization — that this work should be persis- 
tently and systematically carried on. If it 
is true that a very large per cent, of church 
members are the product of the Sunday- 
school, how important it is that they should 
be fired with missionary zeal when their 
hearts are most receptive and their minds 
most unprejudiced and open to truth. 

One of the first and most fundamental les- 
sons to be taught is activity. Sluggishness 
is the bane of any enterprise. Children should 
be taught that whole-hearted service is not 
only a duty but a privilege. They should be 
made to feel that they have part and lot in 



244 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

the great work of bringing the heathen to 
Christ, and that earnest effort on their part 
is essential to the welfare of the unfortunate 
both in their own land and in heathen dark- 
ness. 

In presenting the subject of missions to 
Sunday-schools some definite plan must be 
followed out. All ages and classes can not be 
taught alike. The child tinder eight years 
must be taught different phases of the sub- 
ject from the one who is older. Lessons of 
unselfishness, the joy of giving, the pleasure 
of making others happy through self-sacri- 
fice, are especially adapted to the understand- 
ing of children of this age. This is the time 
of life when habits of mind are in the process 
of formation, hence the necessity for careful 
training. Generalizations appeal more to the 
child's mind than particulars. Notions of 
geography, of history, and of the degrees of 
civilization are very indefinite. The funda- 
mental principles of all missionary enter- 
prise — duty. unselfishness, self-sacrifice — 
easily take root in the young and untrained 
mind. 

After the age of eight more definite work 
can be given. Children under twelve are in- 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 245 

terested in adventure. The experiences of pio- 
neer missionaries are as fascinating to them 
as hero tales in fiction. The history of for- 
eign nations with its diversity of details at- 
tracts and holds the attention. Their activ- 
ities in mission work can be increased and 
diversified. They can become messengers of 
service, run errands, distribute books and 
papers, carry flowers or baskets of provisions 
to the sick. 

Pupils between the ages of twelve and 
eighteen appreciate biography. They can 
understand, to some degree at least, the sac- 
rifice which the great missionaries have made 
in devoting their lives to others. The beauty 
of a life surrendered to Christ makes a deep 
impression on their hearts and moves them 
to set apart for the Master's service the most 
that life holds dear to them. 

With the maturity of later years comes the 
climax of missionary teaching. The altruis- 
tic principles of the gospel may reach their 
final expression in lives consecrated to mis- 
sionary work. The call can be made now for 
volunteers to the mission field. Prayer cir- 
cles can be organized which will stimulate 
interest in the work. Classes may be formed 



246 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

for the study of the field and for determining 
the most pressing needs and the way in which 
they should be met. 

There is scarcely any study in the whole 
curriculum from which a broader intellectual 
training may be derived than the study of 
missions. It includes a knowledge of the com- 
mon branches of learning, geography, litera- 
ture, language, customs, institutions, govorn- 
ment, and religion. It leads to a knowledge 
-of our duty to our neighbors, to our city, to 
our state and nation, and to the whole world. 
It investigates the principles of sacrifice and 
service, of altruism in its most noble form. 
It brings us into contact with all the nations 
of all times, with the different grades of civ- 
ilization and the formation of institutions. 
It is a study without which no education, 
however broad in other lines, is complete. 
Every earnest and thoughtful Christian can- 
not but see the importance of studying a sub- 
ject which embraces so much and leads to a 
true Christian culture. 

Teaching of Temperance 

Temperance instruction Is an important 
part of the Sunday-school teacher's work. It 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 247 

may be introduced at any time, but comes in 
for special emphasis on the particular days 
set apart for the quarterly temperance les- 
sons. To succeed the teachers must make 
special preparation. Fresh material must be 
introduced to keep up interest. This material 
must be facts. General statements on the 
evils of intemperance, will fail to hold the 
attention. 

These facts may be gathered from various 
sources. Collect and classify from the daily 
papers for a week the crimes due to drink. 
Report the victories for prohibition and local 
option which have occurred durng the last 
year. Exhibit a map showing the dry coun- 
ties in the state, or the dry states in the 
United States or the dry territory in the Uni- 
ted States. Collect statistics showing the rela- 
tion of drink to crime. Mention any encour- 
aging signs which have been reported in the 
press, such as stricter rules for the employees 
of railroads or business houses. Give one 
Sunday or more to the thorough study of the 
tobacco habit, its effect on the system, the 
testimony of educators as to the effect of 
cigarettes on the minds of students. Give> 
the facts as found from the analysis of cer- 



248 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

tain so-called patent medicines and soft 
drinks. With the older classes give the facts 
regarding the results of impurity — the white 
slave traffic, the divorce evil. Discuss the 
question of temperance in its larger aspect 
of personal self-control, and moderation in 
all things, even those that are legitimate. 
Collect the teachings of Scripture, in certain 
books, on the subject, or the teachings of 
Christ or of Paul. 

It will be seen that facts of near-by places 
and of recent occurrence are worth more 
than those of other countries or of past his- 
tory. A temperance rule of the shop in your 
native town, or the testimony of a leading 
order or teacher in the neighborhood is of 
the greatest importance. It will be well to 
verify your facts and figures and be accurate 
and particular. 

Topics like the above may be assigned for 
home study to pupils in the upper classes. 
With children pledge-signing is important. 
Pledges should be presented frequently, and 
the signing be a solemn matter, and the time 
an important occasion. It may be well to 
let them wear temperance badges. Make use 
of them in a no-license campaign to distribute 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 249 

literature, and in giving recitations. Organ- 
ize them as soon as possible against the sa- 
loon and the rum traffic. 

The teaching of temperance will be very 
interesting and effective if it is definite. Do 
not preach, but give facts and let the facts 
preach their own truths. 

Biblical Geography 

Bible facts as well as historical events, to 
be well understood, must be localized. Sacred 
history has been too long suspended in mid- 
air. It should be pinned to the earth. Ignor- 
ance in regard to the facts of the Bible has 
often been due to a neglect of the study of 
the geography of the Bible. To many Sun- 
day-school pupils Bible stories are not read. 
The personalities do not stand out as vivid 
characters, simply because the background 
of the picture is lacking. A short time ago, 
a lady en route to the Holy Land was heard 
inquiring of a minister who had made the trip 
before, if he could tell her how far Jerusalem 
was from Palestine. Such ignorance is inex- 
cusable, as well as embarrassing. Pupils who 
are old enough to study geography during 
the week, are surely old enough to under- 



250 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

stand a little Bible geography on Sunday. 
Every pupil in the junior department should 
be quite thoroughly familiar with the map 
of Palestine; and should be able to locate its 
chief bodies of water, its mountains, and its 
cities. The feeding of Elijah, the death of 
Saul, the feeding of the five thousand, the 
transfiguration, the home of Lazarus and his 
sisters, should suggest instantly to the pupil 
places upon the map. 

Every Sunday-school should have good wall 
maps, and should use them every Sunday. 
There should be small outline maps to be 
traced and filled in by the younger pupils- 
Older pupils can make their own outlines, 
and fill in the details as the lessons progress 
from week to week. This work will be of 
lasting benefit. To pupils thus trained, 
Mount Oarmel will stand out as a great land- 
mark two-thirds the distance from north to 
south on the west and directly opposite the 
Sea of Galilee. The location of Jerusalem a 
little west of the northern end of the Dead 
Sea is firmly fixed on the mind. The journey 
of Jesus from Nazareth to Jerusalem is made 
real. A study of contour maps is also very 
valuable. Then will the pupil understand 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 251 

why Christ was thirsty when He arrived at 
the well of Samaria. Then also will He be- 
gin to understand why Jesus removed from 
Nazareth to Capernaum. 

Importance of Drills, ReVietfs and 
Examinations 

1. Drills. Impressions whether weak or 
strong may be greatly strengthened by repe- 
tition. By repetition we do not mean a mere 
going over of the same words, but a conscious 
and attentive repeating of the truths we wish 
to retain. In studying the life of Paul the 
number of chapters which contain the ac- 
count of his conversion; the principal cities 
visited on his three missionary journeys; the 
place and purpose of writing each epistle, 
should become the valued possession of every 
pupil. The importance of repetition is shown 
by Christ in His method of work. Three 
times to Peter He said, "Simon, son of Jonas, 
lovest thou Me?" Could Peter ever forget 
that? 

2. Reviews. It is only the incompetent 
teacher who dreads review Sunday. Every 
Sunday should be a review Sunday. The 
motto of a thorough teacher is Review, re- 



252 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

view. Reviewing not only shows what the 
pupil has learned, but what the teacher has 
taught, and also serves to bring before 
teacher and pupil what has been learned and 
taught in a new light or new view. Suc- 
cessful Sunday-school teaching depends upon 
successful reviews. 

A skilful teacher will use various methods 
in review work, according to the age and 
training of the pupils in the class. One way 
is to choose sides as in a spelling match. 
Another good way is to have review ques- 
tions written on slips of paper, distribute 
them evenly among the members of the class, 
then let them ask the questions one of an- 
other, the slips going to the pupils who suc- 
cessfully answer them. At the close the one 
ihaving the most slips wins. A half hour thus 
spent is attended with pleasure as well as 
profit. 

3. Examinations. Examinations in the 
Sunday-school are just as valuable as exam- 
inations in the secular school. Oral ones may 
be used, but the teacher is likely to talk too 
much. A class that has done faithful work 
for three months, and has had oral reviews, 
is usually willing to take a written examina- 



TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 253 

tion. In this way each pupil has a chance 
to answer all the questions. It is only fair 
that a class should have something definite 
and tangible to show for faithful work. The 
papers should be corrected by the teacher and 
handed back to the pupils. Only those teach- 
ers who have tried written work know of the 
interest that it will create. ■ We know one 
man over fifty years old, who recently in Sun- 
day-school took the first examination of his 
life. He rises an hour earlier than usual 
every morning in order that he may have 
time for study, as his hours at the factory 
during the day are long. He says that the 
Bible to him has become a new book. Tested 
truth is real truth and abiding truth. 

Suggested Books for Reference and 
Supplementary Study, etc, 

1. The Unfolding Life, A. A. Lamoreaux 

2. Training the Teacher, M. G. Brumbaugh 

3. Pedagogical Bible School, 8. B. Haslett 

4. Talks with the Training Class, 

Margaret flattery 

5. Teaching and Teachers, 

H. Clay Trumbull 



254 THE PUPIL AND HOW TO TEACH HIM 

6. Teacher Training with the Master 

Teacher, C. 8. Beardsley 

7. Seven Laws of Teaching, 

John M. Gregory 

8. How to Conduct a Sunday-school, 

Marion Lawrance 

9. Front Line of Sunday-school Work, 

A, N, Peloubet 

10. The Study of the Child, A. R. Taylor 

11. Fundamentals of Child Study, 

E. A. KirTcpatrick 

12. The Educative Process, W. 0. Bagley 

13. The Boy Problem, W. B. Forlush 

14. The Sunday-school Teacher, 

E. H. Hamill 

15. Sunday-school Success, A. R. Wells 

16. Handbook for Sunday-school Workers, 

W. B. Olmstead 



f£y 19 1910 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



i'£M 18 



